I*. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL 
SOUTH  AMERICA 


SOUTH    AMERICA 


INDUSTKIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL 
SOUTH  AMERICA 


BY 

ANNIE  S.  PECK,  A.M.,  F.R.G.S. 

AUTHOR    OF 

"A  SEARCH  FOR  THE  APEX  OF  AMERICA,"  "THE  SOUTH 
AMERICAN  TOUR,  A  DESCRIPTIVE  GUIDE,"  etc. 


NEW  YORK 
E.  P.  BUTTON  &  COMPANY 

681  FIFTH  AVENUE 


Copyright,  1922 
By  E.  P.  DUTTON  &  COMPANY 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Printed  in  the  United  Statet  of  America 


FOREWORD 

"Industrial  and  Commercial  South  America"  has  been  pre- 
pared, as  was  the  descriptive  guide,  "The  South  American 
Tour,"  with  the  desire  to  aid  in  promoting  acquaintance  with 
South  America  and,  as  a  natural  sequence,  friendship  and 
trade. 

As  far  as  possible  the  facts  have  been  gleaned  from  pub- 
lications of  the  various  Governments,  in  a  few  cases  from  those 
of  our  own,  from  high  officials  of  many  large  companies,  and 
from  a  few  authoritative  works.  While  I  can  hardly  hope 
that  despite  all  care  and  effort  I  have  made  no  slip  anywhere, 
I  devoutly  trust  that  no  errors  will  be  discovered  of  such  mag- 
nitude as  I  have  often  noted  in  my  reading  of  important 
publications  and  that  any  here  detected  will  receive  lenient 
criticism. 

The  vast  amount  of  labor  involved  in  the  collection  of  data 
and  the  effort  made  to  attain  accuracy  has  been  such  that  no 
time  remained  for  rhetorical  embellishment  unless  with  delayed 
publication. 

Great  pains  have  been  taken  with  spelling  and  accents,  the 
correct  use  of  the  latter  discovered  with  difficulty,  as  they  are 
altogether  omitted  in  many  works  and  in  others  by  no  means 
to  be  depended  upon.  Yet  they  are  most  important  for  correct 
pronunciation. 

In  this  text  the  spelling  of  some  names  varies  by  intention 
because  the  two  spellings  are  frequent  and  authorized,  and 
should  therefore  be  familiar.  Thus  Marowijne  is  the  Dutch 
and  Maroni  the  English  name  for  the  same  river.  So  Suriname 
is  spelled  with  and  without  the  e. 

South  American  names  ending  in  either  .?  or  z  are  found, 
the  z  common  in  older  publications.  The  ^  is  a  more  recent 


VI  FOREWORD 

style,  taking  the  place  of  z  even  in  the  middle  of  a  word.  Thus 
Huardz  is  also  written  Huards  and  even  Cuzco,  Cusco.  But  I 
drew  the  line  there,  as  Cuzco  is  too  well  established  in  English 
to  make  the  new  and  uglier  form  desirable. 

My  spelling  of  Chilian  is  consistent  throughout.  Formerly 
so  spelled  by  all,  Chile  being  earlier  written  Chili,  when  the 
Spanish  form  of  the  name  was  here  adopted  many  imagined 
that  the  adjective  should  be  changed  also.  For  this  no  reason 
appears,  but  the  contrary.  The  accepted  ending  for  adjectives 
of  this  nature  is  ian,  unless  euphony  demands  a  different,  as 
Venezuelan.  Where  the  ending  ean  is  correctly  employed  as 
in  Andean  and  European,  also  Caribbean,  which  unhappily  is 
often  mispronounced,  the  e  is  long  and  receives  the  accent. 
This  would  be  proper  in  Chilean  as  the  e  in  Chileno  receives 
the  accent;  but  as  a  change  in  our  pronunciation  is  unlikely, 
it  is  better  to  drop  the  final  vowel  and  add  the  suffix  ian  as 
is  done  in  many  other  cases ;  thus  Italy,  Italian. 

The  frequent  writing  of  mate  in  English  is  absolutely 
wrong.  It  is  never  so  printed  in  Spanish,  though  naturally  in 
French ;  but  to  copy  their  form  for  a  Spanish  word  is  absurd. 
The  word  of  course  has  two  syllables,  but  is  accented  on  the 
first;  not  on  the  last  as  the  written  accent  would  imply. 

Iguassu  in  Spanish  is  spelled  Iguazu,  but  the  Portuguese 
form  has  the  right,  because  it  is  a  Brazilian  river,  nowhere 
flowing  in  Argentina,  and  for  a  short  distance  only  on  the 
boundary.  The  Brazilian  spelling  should  therefore  be  followed 
by  us,  and  it  has  the  advantage  that  it  is  more  apt  to  be  cor- 
rectly pronounced. 

Persons  not  undertaking  the  study  of  Spanish  should  at 
least  learn  the  simple  rules  of  pronunciation ;  the  vowels  havfng 
the  ordinary  continental  sounds,  the  consonants  in  the  main 
like  our  own,  though  in  the  middle  of  a  word  b  is  generally 
pronounced  like  v,  d  like  th  in  this  and  //  like  ly.  The  rules 
for  accent  are  easily  remembered,  names  ending  in  a  vowel 
being  accented  on  the  penult,  those  in  a  consonant,  except  s, 
z,  and  n,  on  the  ultima,  unless  otherwise  indicated  by  an  accent. 


FOREWORD  vii 

The  heedlessness  of  many  Americans  on  such  matters  is 
notorious  and  inexcusable.  Knowing  the  correct  pronuncia- 
tion they  continue  to  mispronounce  even  an  easy  word.  A 
notable  illustration  is  Panama,  which  many  former  residents 
of  the  Canal  Zone  and  others  here  persist  in  calling  the  ugly 
Panama  instead  of  the  correct  and  agreeable  Panama. 
Although  in  English  the  accent  is  not  generally  used  on  this 
word  or  on  Colon,  Panama  is  repeated  throughout  the  book 
to  emphasize  the  correct  pronunciation. 

It  is  hoped  that  other  accents  given  will  in  general  be  found 
correct.  It  may  however  be  said  on  Brazilian  authority  that 
the  accents  on  Brazilian  names  are  less  important  than  in 
Spanish. 

A  considerable  divergence  in  the  date  of  statistics  may  be 
noted,  for  which  there  are  several  reasons.  In  some  cases 
pre-war  figures,  in  others  figures  for  1917  or  1918,  seem  to 
afford  a  fairer  valuation;  or  they  might  be  the  only  ones  avail- 
able. Some  figures  (often  in  the  nearest  round  number)  are 
given  as  late  as  1921,  but  to  bring  all  at  the  same  time  up  to 
the  moment  was  quite  impossible.  Great  difficulty  has  been 
experienced  in  choosing  between  conflicting  statements  and 
figures.  In  one  case  three  sets  of  figures  of  areas  were  pre- 
sented by  the  same  person,  before  I  finally  secured  the  most 
accurate. 

My  grateful  appreciation  is  due  and  my  hearty  thanks  are 
here  expressed  to  all  who  in  any  degree  have  helped  by  sup- 
plying or  verifying  data  of  whatever  nature.  Officials  of  the 
various  countries  and  of  many  large  companies  evinced  kindly 
interest  in  the  work  and  gave  freely  of  their  time,  few  being 
too  busy  to  afford  information.  The  names  are  too  numerous 
to  mention,  but  I  trust  that  all  will  feel  assured  that  their 
courtesy  was  recognized  and  that  the  remembrance  will  be 
cherished. 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION xv 

CHAPTER  PACK 

I.    SOUTH  AMERICA  AS  A  WHOLE i 

THE  NORTH  COAST 

II.    COLOMBIA:    AREA,   HISTORY,   GOVERNMENT,   POPULA- 
TION, ETC 7 

III.  COLOMBIA:    PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS        ...  14 

IV.  COLOMBIA:    THE  CAPITAL,  THE  STATES  AND  TERRI- 

TORIES, CHIEF  CITIES 20 

V.    COLOMBIA:    PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION      ...  30 
VI.    COLOMBIA:    RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES       ...  40 
VII.    VENEZUELA:    AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULA- 
TION, ETC 53 

VIII.    VENEZUELA:    PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS     ...  59 
IX.    VENEZUELA:    CAPITAL,    STATES,    TERRITORIES,   CHIEF 

CITIES 63 

X.    VENEZUELA:    PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION    ...  77 

XI.    VENEZUELA:    RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES    ...  86 

XII.    GUIANA  AS  A  WHOLE:    BRITISH  GUIANA    .      .      .  100 

XIII.  DUTCH  AND  FRENCH  GUIANA 109 

THE  WEST  COAST 

XIV.  ECUADOR:     AREA,   HISTORY,   GOVERNMENT,   POPULA- 

TION, ETC 114 

XV.    ECUADOR:   PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS    .      .      .      .121 

XVI.    ECUADOR:    CAPITAL,  PROVINCES,  CHIEF  CITIES    .      .  130 

XVII.    ECUADOR:    PORTS  AND  INTERIOR  TRANSPORTATION      .  135 

XVIII.    ECUADOR:    RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES    .      .      .      .141 

XIX.    PERU:    AREA,    HISTORY,    GOVERNMENT,    POPULATION, 

ETC 148 

XX.    PERU:    PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS        ....  156 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

XXL 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 


PERU;    CAPITAL,  DEPARTMENTS,  CHIEF  CITIES    . 
PERU:    PORTS  AND  INTERIOR  TRANSPORTATION     . 
PERU:    RESOURCES   AND   INDUSTRIES      . 
BOLIVIA  :    AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION, 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

BOLIVIA:    CAPITAL,  DEPARTMENTS,  CHIEF  CITIES 

PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION    .... 
RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES    .... 
AREA,  HISTORY,   GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION, 


BOLIVIA  : 
BOLIVIA  : 
CHILE: 

ETC 

CHILE:    PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 
CHILE:    CAPITAL,  INDIVIDUAL  PROVINCES,  CITIES 
CHILE:    PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION     . 
CHILE:    RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


PAGE 

162 
174 
185 

205 
214 

221 

22Q 

245 
250 

254 
261 
270 


THE  EAST  COAST 

XXXIII.  ARGENTINA:    AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULA- 

TION, ETC 280 

XXXIV.  ARGENTINA:    PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS     .       .       .     287 
XXXV.    ARGENTINA:    THE    CAPITAL,    INDIVIDUAL    PROVINCES 

AND  TERRITORIES 291 

XXXVI.    ARGENTINA:    SEAPORTS    AND    INTERIOR    TRANSPORTA- 
TION         301 

XXXVII.    ARGENTINA:    RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES     .       .       .  315 
XXXVIII.    PARAGUAY:    AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULA- 
TION, ETC 332 

XXXIX.    PARAGUAY:    PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS      .       .       .  338 
'XL.    PARAGUAY:    THE  CAPITAL  AND  OTHER  CITIES    .       .  341 
XLI.    PARAGUAY:    RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES     .      .      .  345 
XLII.    URUGUAY:    AREA,    HISTORY,   GOVERNMENT,   POPULA- 
TION, PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS       ....  354 
XLIII.    URUGUAY:    CAPITAL,    DEPARTMENTS,    CHIEF    CITIES, 

PORTS 360 

XLIV.    URUGUAY:    TRANSPORTATION,  RESOURCES  AND  INDUS- 
TRIES        366 

XLV.    BRAZIL:    AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULATION, 

ETC 372 

XL VI.    BRAZIL:    PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS       ....  379 
XL VII.    BRAZIL:    THE  CAPITAL,  INDIVIDUAL  STATES,  CITIES  .  300 
XLVIII.    BRAZIL:    TRANSPORTATION — OCEAN,  RIVER  AND  RAIL- 
WAY         406 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PACK 

XLIX.    BRAZIL:    RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES     ....  414 

L.    BRAZIL:    OTHER  INDUSTRIES 424 

LI.    SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 434 

LII.    LIFE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA 454 

APPENDIX  I.  POSTAL  REGULATIONS,  ETC.        .      .      .  459 

APPENDIX  II.  LEADING  BANKS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA    .  462 

APPENDIX  III.  STEAMSHIP  LINES  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA  467 

APPENDIX  IV.  PUBLICATIONS 477 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

SOUTH  AMERICA Frontispiece 

FACING 
PAGE 

COLOMBIA 10 

COLOMBIA,  VENEZUELA,  GUIANA,  ECUADOR,  NORTH  BRAZIL      .      .  64 

ECUADOR,  PERU,  BOLIVIA,  SOUTHWEST  BRAZIL 152 

CHILE,  ARGENTINA,  PARAGUAY,  URUGUAY 254 

EASTERN  ARGENTINA,  URUGUAY 308 

EASTERN  BRAZIL 390 

ENVIRONS  OF  SAO  PAULO  AND  Rio  DE  JANEIRO 408 


£111 


INTRODUCTION 

Our  recently  awakened  interest  in  foreign  trade  and  in 
world  affairs  renders  imperatively  necessary  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  of  other  countries  and  a  more  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  their  peoples.  Engaged  in  settling  the  various 
sections  of  our  own  country  and  in  developing  its  manifold 
resources,  we  were  too  long  self  sufficient  in  thought  and 
narrow  in  our  activities.  Yet  years  ago  a  few  far-sighted 
statesmen  like  James  G.  Elaine  realized  that  a  broader  field 
of  action  would  soon  become  essential  to  our  continued  pros- 
perity. A  few  manufacturers  supplemented  their  domestic 
business  with  a  modicum  of  foreign  trade.  A  few  men  of 
affairs  devoted  their  energies  exclusively  to  the  field  of 
foreign  commerce. 

The  Spanish  War,  first  inspiring  many  with  the  idea 
that  the  United  States  had  become  a  world  power  with 
interests  beyond  its  boundaries,  served  to  arouse  in  others  a 
disposition  to  have  a  share  in  foreign  trade.  Following  a 
gradual  increase  in  the  early  years  of  this  century,  a  sudden 
expansion  of  our  commerce  occurred  a  few  months  subsequent 
to  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War.  A  scarcity  of  shipping  pre- 
vented its  attaining  the  proportions  which  might  otherwise 
have  been  realized.  Now  that  this  obstacle  is  removed  and  the 
exactions  of  war  service  are  over,  adequate  preparations  should 
be  made  for  the  conduct  of  our  developing  commercial  rela- 
tions, especially  with  our  Sister  Continent  at  the  south. 

The  supposition  that  those  individuals  who  are  directly 
engaged  in  foreign  commerce  are  alone  benefited  thereby  has 
unfortunately  been  widespread.  Under  our  democratic  form 
of  government  it  is  particularly  essential  that  all  should  under- 
stand the  advantages  of  foreign  trade  for  the  welfare  of  the 

xv 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

entire  nation,  that  this  may  not  be  hampered  by  the  narrow 
views  of  local-thinking  politicians,  jealous  of  the  prosperity  of 
other  individuals  or  sections,  or  by  persons  who  concern  them- 
selves merely  with  the  question  of  wages  for  a  few  or  with 
other  special  matters ;  and  thus  that  our  commerce  may  be 
fostered  by  our  Government  according  to  the  custom  of  other 
nations,  with  no  purpose  of  bitter  rivalry  or  unfriendly  greed, 
but  with  the  natural  and  proper  desire  of  a  great  nation  to 
share  in  the  mutual  benefits  accruing  to  all  countries  where 
suitable  and  honorable  foreign  trade  is  developed,  as  in  the 
case  of  individuals  who  buy  and  sell  in  the  home  market. 

Some  knowledge  of  other  countries  and  peoples,  of  causes 
contributing  to  their  present  condition,  and  of  their  prospects 
for  future  development,  while  giving  intelligent  interest  to 
trade  and  of  service  in  making  plans  for  permanent  rather 
than  transitory  gain,  is  desirable  for  all  who  care  to  rise  above 
ignorant  narrow-minded  provincialism,  to  be  better  prepared 
for  civic  and  political  duties,  and  to  enjoy  a  broader  outlook 
upon  the  entire  world. 


The  most  superficial  observer  cannot  fail  to  perceive  the 
enormous  advantages  which  have  arisen  from  division  of  labor 
among  individuals  and  nations.  The  personal  barter  of  primi- 
tive days  was  soon  superseded  by  a  medium  of  exchange,  fixed 
locally  though  varying  in  different  regions.  There  followed 
the  transport  from  one  city  to  another  and  from  distant  lands 
of  the  various  products,  natural  or  manufactured,  of  those 
cities  and  countries.  As  many  things  grow  only  in  certain 
parts  of  the  world,  others  we  know  are  manufactured  only  in 
certain  districts.  That  in  the  distant  future  trie  time  may  come 
when  the  entire  habitable  globe  will  be  occupied,  each  portion 
produce  what  is  best  adapted  to  its  environment,  and  the  fruits 
of  the  whole  earth  be  enjoyed  by  all  its  inhabitants,  is  from 
the  physical  point  of  view  the  ideal  to  which  we  may  look 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

forward,  a  goal  for  the  attainment  of  which  every  nation  may 
fittingly  contribute. 

Few  are  the  portions  of  the  earth  where  it  is  impossible 
for  man  to  dwell,  providing  for  his  wants  from  his  immediate 
surroundings.  Each  section  not  altogether  barren  produces 
such  food  and  requisites  for  clothing  as  are  essential  to  sustain 
life  in  that  locality.  The  only  considerable  portion  of  the 
globe  which  is  uninhabited,  the  Antarctic  continent,  seems 
likely  so  to  continue,  as  it  appears  not  merely  the  most  unat- 
tractive spot  in  the  world  but  devoid  of  the  barest  necessities 
for  existence. 

The  North  Polar  regions,  however,  support  a  few  people 
who  live  upon  the  products  of  the  country  and  who  probably 
would  not  survive  if  they  adopted  the  customs  of  civilization 
as  we  regard  them,  though  the  use  of  a  few  articles  which 
have  been  carried  there  may  slightly  ameliorate  their  hard 
existence. 

The  denizens  of  the  tropical  forest,  who  also  have  adapted 
themselves  to  their  surroundings,  being  able  to  live  with  little 
labor,  generally  pursue  an  easy  life,  since  necessity  and  ambi- 
tion for  improvement  are  lacking. 

In  other  quarters  of  the  globe  where  labor  is  necessary  to 
sustain  life  but  where  its  results  may  be  a  bare  existence,  com- 
fort, or  luxury,  man  has  continually  struggled  for  improve- 
ment, braving  danger  and  suffering,  and  toiling  long  hours  for 
the  future  good  of  himself  or  his  children.  Thus  has  the 
world  made  progress. 

Here  in  the  United  States  we  might  live  in  comfort  with 
the  products  of  our  broad  lands  only;  yet  we  do  not  desire 
to  seclude  ourselves  within  a  Chinese  Wall.  We  would  enjoy 
the  fruits  of  the  whole  earth,  not  by  imperialistic  conquest, 
but  through  friendly  acquaintance,  the  sharing  of  ideas,  and 
the  exchange  of  products. 

Some  things  we  produce  in  such  abundance  that  we  have 
a  superfluity  to  barter  for  others  things  which  we  produce 
not  at  all  or  not  in  sufficient  quantities.  In  the  past  we  have 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 

had  more  trade  with  Europe  than  with  other  continents.  In 
various  lines  of  manufactures  and  of  artistic  goods  we  are 
still  unable  to  compete.  While  east  and  west  trade  will  no 
doubt  continue  indefinitely,  for  natural  products  it  would  seem 
that  the  chief  exchange  should  be  north  and  south,  a  difference 
in  latitude  causing  variety  in  climates,  and  a  diversity  in  pro- 
ductions both  animal  and  vegetable.  With  our  expansion  of 
shipping  facilities  following  the  conclusion  of  the  War,  we 
may  hope  for  a  continuing  increase  of  movement  from  north 
to  south  on  this  hemisphere,  making  for  friendship  and  poli- 
tical harmony  as  well  as  for  material  advantage. 

In  considering  South  America  from  a  commercial  and 
industrial  point  of  view  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  physical 
characteristics  of  the  individual  countries,  their  advantages  and 
drawbacks;  the  climate  and  soil;  the  resources,  including  the 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  products,  and  the  water  power ; 
the  character  of  the  inhabitants  including  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  human  labor;  their  present  needs  and  wants;  the 
future  possibilities ;  the  opportunity  for  investments  of  various 
kinds  and  political  conditions  affecting  these;  the  instruments 
of  exchange,  banking  and  trade  regulations ;  the  means  of 
communication  and  transport  by  land  and  water. 

In  addition  we  should  know  the  difficulties  which  have 
retarded  the  development  of  countries  settled  earlier  than  our 
own,  that  instead  of  a  supercilious  mental  attitude  on  account 
of  real  or  fancied  superiority  in  certain  directions,  we  may 
have  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  conditions,  and  of  tre- 
mendous obstacles,  some  of  which  have  been  overcome  in  an 
extraordinary  manner. 

A  general  view  of  the  continent  as  a  whole  may  well  pre- 
cede a  more  detailed  study  of  the  several  countries. 


CHAPTER  I 
SOUTH  AMERICA  AS  A  WHOLE 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

In  the  study  of  South  America  one  may  observe  certain 
points  of  resemblance  with  others  of  difference  between  that 
continent  and  North  America.  The  outline  of  each,  we  per- 
ceive, is  roughly  triangular,  broad  at  the  north  and  tapering 
towards  the  south;  but  as  the  broad  part  of  one  is  not  far 
from  the  Arctic  Circle  while  that  of  the  other  is  near  the 
equator,  we  find  that  the  greater  part  of  North  America  is 
in  the  temperate  zone  while  most  of  South  America  is  in  the 
torrid ;  disparity  in  climate  and  productions  follows. 

The  geological  formation  of  the  two  continents  is  as  similar 
as  their  outline.  There  is  a  correspondence  on  the  northeast 
between  what  are  called  the  Laurentian  Highlands  in  Labrador 
and  the  uplands  of  Guiana;  on  the  southeast  between  the 
Appalachian  system  of  the  North  and  the  Serra  do  Mar  of 
Brazil,  each  having  a  northeast  to  southwest  trend  and  a  fair 
similarity  in  height,  though  the  tallest  peak  in  either  range  is 
the  Itatiaia  in  Brazil,  which  by  3000  feet  exceeds  Mt.  Mitchel, 
the  highest  of  the  Appalachians.  A  difference  worth  noting 
is  that  the  Brazilian  range  is  closer  to  the  sea. 

A  similarity,  perhaps  greater,  exists  in  the  west  where  lie, 
close  to  the  shore,  the  loftier  ranges  of  the  two  continents,  of 
much  later  origin  than  the  eastern  mountains,  and  containing 
many  volcanic  peaks.  Each  system  includes  several  chains 
with  valleys  or  plateaus  between ;  but  in  the  United  States  the 
system  which  includes  the  Rockies  is  wider  than  is  that  of  the 
Andes  at  any  point.  The  two  systems  are  distinct,  having 


2  SOUTH  AMERICA  AS  A  WHOLE 

neither  the  same  origin  nor  the  same  trend,  while  the  altitude 
of  the  South  American  massif  greatly  exceeds  that  of  the 
North  American  mountains. 

Between  the  coastal  regions  both  continents  have  great 
basins  sloping  to  the  north,  east,  and  south  with  a  large  river 
draining  each:  the  Mackenzie  and  the  Orinoco  flowing  north, 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Amazon  east,  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Parana  south.  Were  the  two  continents  side  by  side  there 
would  be  a  great  resemblance  in  production  instead  of  the 
present  considerable  diversity. 

While  in  area  South  America  is  ranked  as  smaller  than 
North  America,  it  may  be  a  trifle  larger  in  land  surface,  espe- 
cially in  habitable  regions,  if  the  opinion  of  Humboldt  is  cor- 
rect that  the  Amazon  Basin  will  one  day  support  the  densest 
population  on  the  globe.  The  southern  continent,  comprising 
no  large  bodies  of  water  like  Hudson  Bay  and  our  Great  Lakes, 
also  has,  save  the  slopes  of  the  highest  mountains,  no  regions 
like  those  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  incapable  of  supporting  more 
than  the  scantiest  population. 

The  outline  of  the  continent  is  less  irregular  than  that  of 
North  America,  consequently  there  are  fewer  good  harbors, 
especially  on  the  west  coast. 

CLIMATE 

As  three  quarters  of  South  America  lie  within  the  tropics, 
the  entire  north  coast,  and  the  wider  part  of  the  continent 
including  most  of  Brazil  with  the .  countries  on  the  west  as 
far  down  as  the  northern  part  of  Chile,  a  tropical  climate  and 
productions  might  here  be  expected.  But  happily  within  the 
torrid  zone  of  both  hemispheres  are  the  loftiest  mountain 
ranges  of  the  world.  These  modify  the  climate  of  large  sec- 
tions to  such  a  degree  that  in  many  places  there  is  perpetual 
spring,  a  perennial  May  or  June;  in  other  districts  one  may 
in  comparatively  few  hours  go  from  regions  of  eternal  summer 
to  perpetual  snow,  finding  on  the  way  the  products  of  every 


SOUTH  AMERICA  AS  A  WHOLE  3 

clime.  Thus  the  mountains  and  table-lands  of  South  America 
are  effective  in  causing  moderate  temperatures  over  extensive 
areas  within  the  tropics,  with  accordant  productions. 

In  comparing  the  climates  of  North  and  South  America 
we  must  note  that  while  the  tropical  region  of  the  latter  is 
much  the  larger,  in  corresponding  latitudes  it  is  in  general 
cooler  south  of  the  equator  than  north.  An  examination  of 
the  isothermal  lines,  that  is  the  lines  of  equal  average  heat 
around  the  globe,  shows : 

First,  that  the  line  of  greatest  heat,  a  mean  temperature  of 
85°,  is  north  of  the  equator  most  of  the  way.  In  the  Western 
Hemisphere  it  runs  well  up  into  Central  America;  then  it 
passes  along  the  northeast  coast  of  South  America  to  a  point 
just  below  the  equator  and  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  going 
far  north  again  in  Africa. 

Second,  that  of  the  mean  annual  isotherms  of  65°,  which 
are  regarded  as  the  limits  of  the  hot  belt,  the  one  in  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere  runs  30°  or  more  from  the  equator,  while 
that  in  South  America  hardly  touches  the  3Oth  parallel,  and 
on  the  west  coast  approaches  the  equator  to  within  12° : 
which  means  that  the  tropical  region  extends  much  farther 
north  of  the  equator  than  it  does  south. 

Third,  that  of  the  isotherms  of  50°  for  the  warmest  month, 
which  are  considered  as  the  polar  limits  of  the  temperate 
zones,  the  one  is  much  nearer  to  the  north  pole  than  the  other 
is  to  the  south.  Great  masses  of  water,  we  know,  have  a 
tendency  to  equalize  climate,  as  the  water  heats  and  cools 
more  slowly  than  the  land;  but  they  do  not  make  the  average 
temperature  higher.  From  the  movement  of  the  waters  of 
the  ocean  their  temperature  over  the  globe  is  more  nearly 
equal,  while  the  stable  land  of  broad  continental  masses  has 
temperatures  more  nearly  corresponding  to  the  latitude,  though 
with  greater  daily  and  annual  extremes.  But  for  practical 
purposes,  that  is  for  its  effect  on  vegetation,  the  amount  of 
heat  received  in  summer  is  of  more  consequence  than  the 
extreme  cold  of  winter.  For  this  reason  the  temperature  of 


4  SOUTH  AMERICA  AS  A  WHOLE 

the  warmest  month  instead  of  the  annual  mean  is  taken  as 
the  measure;  for  if  that  month's  mean  temperature  is  below 
50°,  cereals  and  trees  will  not  grow.  The  broad  land  masses  in 
the  Northern  Hemisphere  have  a  greater  summer  heat  than 
the  narrow  stretch  of  land  in  extreme  South  America.  The 
greater  cold  of  winter  in  the  north  temperate  zone  does  no 
harm. 

We  may  observe  further  that  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
the  west  coasts  of  both  continents  are  warmer  in  the  same 
latitude  than  the  east,  at  least  in  the  temperate  zone,  while  in 
South  America  a  good  part  of  the  west  coast  within  the  tropics 
is  much  cooler  than  the  east.  In  the  temperate  zone  the  varia- 
tion is  slight. 

In  the  matter  of  rainfall,  a  most  important  factor  of  climate 
and  production,  South  America  is  favored  with  a  liberal  sup- 
ply, the  arid  portions  being  comparatively  small  in  area,  and 
many  of  these  easily  capable  of  irrigation  and  of  resulting 
excellent  crops. 

Dividing  the  continent  into  tropical  and  temperate  regions, 
the  former  includes  (lowlands  only)  the  entire  north  coast, 
the  whole  of  Colombia  with  ports  on  the  Pacific,  and  Ecuador 
beyond,  the  low  interiors  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  around  on 
the  east  the  greater  part  of  Brazil,  far  beyond  the  mouth  of 
the  Amazon;  these  sections  have  much  in  common  as  to 
climate  and  productions.  Below  Ecuador  on  the  west  coast, 
though  still  in  the  torrid  zone,  we  find  cooler  weather,  prac- 
tically no  rain,  and  for  1600  miles  a  desert  region ;  beyond  this 
there  is  a  temperate  climate  with  gradually  increasing  rain- 
fall, and  at  last  in  southern  Chile  too  much.  On  the  east 
coast  tropical  weather  and  products  continue  till  we  pass 
Santos  and  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  followed  by  sub-tropical 
and  temperate  climates  and  production.  The  mountainous 
regions  even  at  the  equator  have  cooler  weather,  the  tempera- 
ture ever  lowering  with  increase  of  altitude. 


SOUTH  AMERICA  AS  A  WHOLE 


OTHER  DISTINCTIVE  FEATURES 

In  general  we  may  say  that  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile 
and  that  the  country  contains  wonderfully  rich  deposits  of 
minerals  of  almost  every  kind.  The  immense  store  of  precious 
metals  found  on  this  continent,  some  assert  the  greatest  in  any 
portion  of  the  globe,  was  an  important  factor  in  its  settlement ; 
yet  for  true  national  prosperity  the  humbler  coal  and  iron  are 
of  more  value.  Water  power  is  also  of  material  service.  In 
these  three  important  elements  of  wealth  South  America  is  not 
deficient,  though  her  resources  in  these  lines  are  but  slightly 
developed. 

Although  many  settlements  were  made  in  South  America 
more  than  half  a  century  earlier  than  our  first  at  Jamestown, 
Virginia,  in  1607,  the  population  is  much  smaller  than  that  of 
North  America,  the  approximate  number  of  inhabitants  being 
60,000,000  for  South  America  and  150,000,000  for  North; 
manifestly  the  development  of  her  countries  has  been  less 
rapid.  For  this  there  are  obvious  reasons. 

The  tropical  climate  of  the  north  coast  and  of  much  of 
Brazil  might  seem  less  attractive  to  residents  of  temperate 
Europe  and  less  conducive  to  strenuous  labor  on  the  part  of 
those  who  came;  the  cooler  regions  of  the  south  were  more 
remote  than  the  lands  of  North  America.  Moreover,  the 
Spanish  colony  promising  the  greatest  wealth,  Peru,  which  at 
the  same  time  was  the  seat  of  government,  was  indeed  diffi- 
cult of  access,  presenting  besides,  stupendous  obstacles  to  in- 
terior travel.  In  view  of  these  facts  it  seems  wonderful  that 
so  many  settlements  were  made  on  the  west  coast  and  that 
so  great  a  degree  of  culture  was  there  maintained. 

Growth  was  further  hampered  by  heavy  taxes,  merciless 
restrictions  on  trade,  and  other  regulations  by  the  home  gov- 
ernments, almost  until  the  countries  achieved  their  inde- 
pendence. During  the  century  of  their  freedom  most  of  the 
Republics  have  suffered  from  revolutions  and  other  troubles, 


6  SOUTH  AMERICA  AS  A  WHOLE 

but  in  recent  years  several  have  enjoyed  a  rapid  development 
with  considerable  immigration.  All  now  present  opportunities 
of  various  kinds  for  investment  by  capitalists,  for  general 
trade,  and  for  other  forms  of  business.  Such  opportunities, 
as  well  as  the  conditions  of  living,  vary  greatly  in  different 
countries  and  in  localities  of  the  same  country. 

It  has  long  been  a  source  of  criticism  on  the  part  of  the 
diplomats  and  residents  of  the  various  Republics  that  in  our 
minds  they  have  been  lumped  together;  that  we  often  refer 
to  those  portions  of  the  New  World  which  were  settled  by 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  as  Latin  America  or  to  all  save 
Brazil  as  Spanish  America.  Now  that  we  are  entering  upon 
a  period  of  closer  relationship  with  our  southern  neighbors,  it 
is  obviously  desirable  that  we  should  differentiate  among  them, 
learn  of  the  diversity  in  productions  and  resources  which 
characterize  the  various  countries,  and  something  of  their  social 
and  political  conditions,  all  of  which  have  a  bearing  upon 
present  and  prospective  possibilities  for  commercial  relations. 
Therefore  the  countries  must  be  studied  carefully  and  in- 
dividually. 

So  far  as  transportation  and  travel  are  concerned  South 
America  is  often  divided  broadly  into  three  sections :  the  East, 
the  West,  and  the  North  Coasts,  to  which  a  fourth  is  some- 
times added,  the  Amazon  Basin.  We  may  begin  with  the 
nearest,  the  countries  on  the  North  Coast,  follow  with  those 
on  the  West,  and  coming  up  from  the  south  conclude  with 
Brazil.  With  the  Republics  of  the  North  Coast  we  have  the 
greatest  percentage  of  trade,  with  those  on  the  East  the  largest 
amount. 


THE  NORTH  COAST 
CHAPTER  II 

COLOMBIA:  AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  ETC 

Colombia,  nearest  to  the  United  States  of  the  republics  of 
South  America,  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
beautiful  of  the  countries  of  that  continent,  containing  magnifi- 
cent scenery,  with  extraordinary  variety  and  wealth  of  natural 
resources.  Colombia  is  noted  as  the  first  producer  in  the  world 
of  platinum,  emeralds,  and  mild  coffee;  the  first  in  South 
America  of  gold. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  Colombia  is  fifth  in  size  of  the  countries  of  South 
America,  with  an  area  variously  given,  but  approximately  of 
464,000  square  miles. 

Population.  She  is  probably  third  in  population,  official 
figures  received  March,  1921,  of  the  1918  census  being 
5,847,491.  6,000,000  may  be  credited  to  her  in  1921. 

Boundary.  Colombia  has  the  good  fortune  to  be  the 
only  South  American  country  bordering  upon  two  oceans. 
Having  an  irregular  shape,  with  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
dividing  the  two  coasts  nearly  in  the  middle,  Colombia  has 
the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  north  and  northwest  for  a  distance 
of  641  miles,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  for  a  stretch  of  468 
miles,  west  of  the  main  body  of  the  country.  Measuring 
the  outline  of  all  the  indentations,  the  coast  line  would  be 
two  or  three  times  as  long.  On  the  south  are  the  Republics 
of  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Brazil;  on  the  east  Brazil  and  Vene- 
zuela. The  extreme  length  of  the  country,  from  12°  24' 

7 


8  THE  NORTH  COAST 

N.  Lat.  to  2°  17'  S.,  is  a  little  over  1000  miles,  as  far  as 
from  New  York  to  St.  Louis;  the  greatest  width,  from  66° 
7'  to  79°  W.  Long.,  is  about  800  miles. 

HISTORY 

In  1502  Columbus  sailed  along  the  northern  coast,  a  fact 
which  may  have  prompted  the  inhabitants  to  give  the  country 
his  name.  As  early  as  1508  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  who  in  1499 
had  first  touched  Colombian  soil,  made  settlements  on  the 
coast ;  and  in  1 536  Gonzalo  Jimenez  de  Quesada  explored  the 
interior  as  far  as  the  site  of  Bogota,  where  he  founded  a  city 
after  establishing  friendly  relations  with  the  aborigines. 

The  country  was  first  named  New  Granada.  By  the  middle 
of  the  century  Spanish  power  was  fairly  established  along 
the  coast  and  in  part  of  the  interior.  The  territory  was  under 
the  authority  of  the  Viceroy  at  Lima,  with  a  local  presidency, 
until  1718,  when  a  Viceroy,  ruling  Ecuador  and  Venezuela  as 
well,  was  established  at  Bogota.  In  1810  an  insurrection  broke 
out  against  Spain,  the  war  continuing  at  intervals  until  1824. 
During  those  troublous  years  Sim6n  Bolivar  was  the  chief 
leader,  both  acting  as  commanding  general  and  in  1821  be- 
coming President.  In  1819  Bolivar  had  inaugurated  the  Great 
Colombian  Republic  which  united  Venezuela  and  Ecuador  with 
New  Granada;  but  in  1829  Venezuela  withdrew  and  in  1830, 
the  year  of  Bolivar's  death,  Ecuador  also. 

In  1831  the  Republic  of  New  Granada  was  established,  but 
disorders  followed.  Many  changes  occurred  in  the  form  of 
government,  which  was  at  one  time  a  confederation,  then  the 
United  States  and  now  the  Republic  of  Colombia.  There 
have  been  strife  and  insurrections:  in  1903  that  of  Panama 
made  the  United  States  and  its  people  extremely  unpopular  in 
Colombia  and  for  some  time  unfavorably  affected  our  com- 
mercial dealings.  The  adoption  by  the  Senate  of  the  Treaty 
of  Bogota  will  doubtless  increase  the  already  more  friendly 
feeling  on  the  part  of  Colombians,  which  can  but  be  of  value 
for  our  investments  and  trade. 


COLOMBIA  9 

GOVERNMENT 

Since  1886  Colombia  has  been  a  unitary  or  centralized 
republic,  the  sovereignty  of  the  States  being  abolished.  The 
Departments,  as  they  are  called,  have  Governors  appointed 
by  the  President,  although  each  has  an  Assembly  for  the 
regulation  of  internal  affairs.  Besides  the  Departments,  there 
are  Territories  of  two  varieties:  Intendencias,  directly  con- 
nected with  the  Central  Government  and  Comisarias,  sparsely 
settled  districts  depending  upon  the  nearest  Department. 

The  President  is  elected  for  four  years  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people.  He  has  a  Cabinet  of  eight  members,  the  heads  of  the 
various  departments:  the  Ministers  of  the  Interior  (Gobierno), 
Foreign  Affairs  (Relaciones  Exteriores) ,  Finance  (Hacienda), 
War  (Guerra),  Public  Instruction  (Instruction  Publica),  Agri- 
culture and  Commerce  (Agricultura  y  Comer  cio),  Public 
Works  (Obras  Publicas),  Treasury  (Tesoro). 

Instead  of  a  Vice  President  two  Designados,  a  first  and 
a  second,  are  elected  annually  by  Congress  to  act  as  President 
in  case  of  his  death,  absence  from  the  country,  or  inability 
to  serve. 

The  National  Congress  consists  of  a  Senate  and  a  House 
of  Representatives.  The  35  Senators  are  elected  for  four 
years  by  persons  chosen  for  that  purpose;  the  92  Representa- 
tives, one  for  each  50,000  inhabitants,  are  elected  for  two  years 
by  direct  vote.  Two  substitutes  are  chosen  for  each  Member 
of  Congress  to  replace  them  in  case  of  inability  to  serve. 
Congress  meets  annually  at  the  Capital,  Bogota,  July  20,  for 
90  to  1 20  days.  The  President  may  call  an  extra  session. 

The  Judicial  Branch  includes  a  Supreme  Court  of  nine 
judges,  a  Superior  Tribunal  for  each  Department  and  a  num- 
ber of  minor  judges. 

Colombia  has  14  Departments :  four  bordering  on  the  Carib- 
bean, Magdalena,  Atlantico,  Bolivar,  Antioquia;  three  on  the 
Pacific,  El  Valle,  Cauca,  Narino ;  seven  in  the  interior,  Huila, 
Tolima,  Cundinamarca,  Boyaca,  Santander,  Santander  del 


10 


THE  NORTH  COAST 


Norte,  Caldas ;  Intendencias :  Meta  at  the  east ;  Choco  border- 
ing on  the  Caribbean  and  the  Pacific ;  the  Islands,  San  Andres 
and  Providencia;  six  Comisarias:  La  Goajira,  Arauca,  Vichada, 
Vaupes,  Caqueta,  Putumayo. 

The  names  of  the  Departments,  their  area,  population,  capi- 
tals and  population  follow : 


DEPARTMENTS 

AREA, 
in  square 
miles 

POPU- 
LATION 

CAPITALS 

POPU- 
LATION 

ALTI- 
TUDE, 
in  feet 

Magdalena  

I7.O22 

204,000 

Santa  Marta  .  . 

18,000 

t 

Atldntico  

I,2OO 

I15.OOO 

Barranquilla.  .  . 

64.000 

i 

Bolivar  

25,800 

457.000 

Cartagena.  .    .  . 

51,000 

f 

Antioquia  

27.777 

823,000 

Medellin  

80,000 

4,86O 

El  Valle  

IO,8O2 

272,000 

Cali  

45.000 

-I  .AGO 

Cauca  

Q.625 

240  ooo 

Popay<in  

20  200 

c  740 

Narino  

11.574. 

14O.OOO 

Pasto  

29,000 

8  660 

Huila  

8.87^ 

182,000 

Neiva  

25,000 

1.  515 

Tolima  

Q,l82 

12Q.OOO 

Ibagu6  

30,000 

4.28O 

Cundinamarca  

8,622 

809,000 

Bogota  

14.4.,  ooo 

8,68O 

Boyaca  

1.11O 

650.000 

Tunja  

10,000 

0.2OO 

Santander  

II,8l9 

410.OOO 

Bucaramanga.  . 

25  ooo 

^  ISO 

Santander  del  Norte 

7.7l6 

210.  OOO 

Cticuta  

10.000 

I.OSO 

Caldas  

1.100 

4.28.000 

Manizales  

41.OOO 

7,000 

TERRITORIES: 
Meta  

85,OOO 

14.OOO 

Villa  vicencio  .  . 

4..7OO 

I.  TOO 

Choc6     

m.ooo 

91,000 

Quibd6  

25.OOO 

1  18 

San  Andres  y  Pro- 
videncia   

6,000 

San  Andres  .  .  . 

l.ooo 

t 

La  Goajira  

5.000 

22,600 

San  Antonio  .  .  . 

2,100 

t 

Arauca  

5.OOO 

7.  COO 

Arauca  

1.QOO 

64.0 

Vichada  

* 

5,54.0 

Vichada  

54O 

* 

Vaupes  

* 

6.1  50 

Calamar  

7  5O 

* 

Caqueta  

187.000 

74..OOO 

Florencia  

1.2OO 

* 

Putumayo  

* 

40,000 

Mocoa  

1,200 

2,100 

*  No  figures  available.  t  At  or  near  sea  level. 

NOTE. — The  figures  for  Meta  doubtless  include  the  area  of  the  new 
Comisaria,  Vichada,  and  those  for  Caqueta  the  areas  of  Vaupes  and 
Putumayo. 


COLOMBIA 


COLOMBIA  11 

POPULATION 

Colombia,  ranking  third  of  the  South  American  Republics 
in  population,  has  about  6,000,000  inhabitants,  very  unevenly 
distributed,  as  is  obvious  from  the  figures  of  the  Departments, 
already  given.  The  average  is  12  to  a  square  mile,  but  in 
the  Departments  26  to  a  square  mile.  The  smallest  Depart- 
ment, Atlantico,  is  the  most  densely  populated,  114  to  the 
square  mile.  The  largest  Department,  Antioquia,  more  than 
three  times  the  size  of  Massachusetts,  has  also  the  largest 
population,  which  is  reputed  to  be  the  most  enterprising. 

The  character  of  the  population  is  varied.  According  to 
the  Colombian  statesman,  Uribe,  66  per  cent  is  composed  of 
pure  whites  and  of  mestizos  of  white  and  Indian  and  white 
and  negro  origin,  who  through  successive  crossings  during 
four  centuries  have  acquired  the  traits  of  the  Caucasian  race, 
in  some  cases  showing  no  traces  of  the  extreme  elements ;  the 
pure  Indians  are  14  per  cent,  pure  black  4  per  cent,  and  colored 
mixtures  16  per  cent.  The  tendency  is  towards  a  closer  fusion 
making  a  unique  type  which  will  give  the  desired  national 
unification.  There  are  about  600,000  Indians,  the  greater  num- 
ber more  or  less  civilized;  perhaps  150,000  wild  Indians,  some 
friendly,  others  hostile.  How  many  there  are  in  the  forested 
Amazon  region  is  uncertain  ;  the  recent  census  places  the  figure 
at  a  little  over  100,000.  Among  all  the  Indians  one  hundred 
or  more  different  languages  are  spoken. 

A  great  diversity  in  social  conditions  is  to  be  expected. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  dwell  in  the  cities  or 
smaller  towns.  In  a  number  of  these  may  be  found  the  cul- 
ture, dress,  and  refinements  of  European  cities,  splendid  salons 
or  modest  drawing  rooms  with  equal  urbanity  in  each.  The 
wants  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes  and  of  the  Indians  would 
be  quite  different,  and  would  depend  further  upon  their  place 
of  residence ;  the  requirements  of  dwellers  in  the  tropical  plains 
and  valleys,  and  of  those  who  live  on  or  near  the  bleak  paramos 
are  obviously  very  diverse. 


12  THE  NORTH  COAST 

EDUCATION 

Considerable  attention  is  paid  to  education,  which  in  the 
primary  grades  is  free  but  not  compulsory.  The  percentage  of 
illiteracy  is  about  70.  Bogota  has  a  National  University  with 
Schools  of  Medicine,  Law,  Political  Science,  Engineering,  and 
Natural  Science.  Connected  with  it  is  the  National  Library, 
an  Astronomical  Observatory,  a  School  of  Fine  Arts,  and  an 
Academy  of  Music.  A  free  institute  of  learning  is  the  Uni- 
versidad  Republicana;  there  is  also  a  School  of  Arts  and 
Trades,  giving  both  general  and  technical  instruction,  as  in 
printing,  carpentry,  etc. ;  a  colegio  or  school  for  secondary 
instruction,  La  Salle  Institute,  the  largest  in  Colombia,  which 
prepares  for  the  University;  and  a  Homoeopathic  Institute, 
from  which  at  least  one  woman  has  been  graduated. 

There  are  universities  also  at  Cartagena,  Popayan,  Pasto, 
and  Medellin ;  in  the  last  named  city,  a  School  of  Mines,  which 
is  a  part  of  the  National  University.  Elementary  instruction 
is  the  most  zealously  promoted  in  Antioquia,  Caldas,  Boyaca, 
and  Cauca;  in  the  other  Departments  the  school  attendance  is 
poor.  In  Colombia,  Spanish  is  spoken  with  greater  purity  than 
in  most  of  the  other  Republics. 

Institutions  giving  instruction  in  agriculture,  in  arts  and 
trades,  and  in  general  science  are  greatly  needed,  as  also  the 
teaching  of  sanitation  and  hygiene. 

PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

Press.    The  Press  is  free,  and  bold  in  discussion. 

Religion.  The  Constitution  recognizes  the  Roman 
Catholic  Religion  as  that  of  the  country  but  permits  other 
forms  of  worship. 

Telegraph.  The  700  telegraph  offices  are  connected  by 
13,750  miles  of  line.  Colombia  has  cable  connection  at 
Buenaventura,  San  Andres,  and  Barranquilla ;  wireless  sta- 
tions at  Santa  Marta,  Puerto  Colombia,  and  Cartagena.  An 


COLOMBIA  13 

international  wireless  station  is  expected  at  Bogota  in  1921. 
Other  stations  will  be  at  Barranquilla,  Arauca,  Cucuta,  Cali, 
Medellin.  There  are  13,000  miles  of  telephone  wire.* 

Money.  The  money  of  Colombia  approximates  our  own : 
that  is,  a  gold  peso  is  worth  97.3  cents.  Five  pesos  equal  an 
English  sovereign.  A  condor  is  10  pesos;  a  medio  condor, 
5  pesos,  an  English  pound.  Silver  coins  are  50,  40,  and  10 
centavos  or  cents;  nickel  coins  are  I,  2,  and  5  cents. 

The  Metric  System  of  weights  and  measures  is  legal 
and  official  as  in  all  the  other  Republics,  although  to  some  ex- 
tent in  domestic  business  the  old  Spanish  measures  are  used; 
as  libra,  i.io  pound,  arroba,  25  libras,  quintal,  100  libras, 
cargo,  250  libras.  The  vara,  80  centimeters,  and  the  fanega, 
about  a  bushel  are  other  measures.  The  litre  is  of  course 
the  standard  of  liquid  measure. 

*  For  postal  regulations  to  all  the  countries  see  Appendix. 


CHAPTER  III 
COLOMBIA:  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

Colombia  is  called  a  very  mountainous  country,  and  the 
most  casual  visitor  would  not  dispute  the  statement.  Moun- 
tains are  in  evidence  along  both  shores  and  on  the  way  to 
interior  cities;  but  the  unseen  part,  the  hinterland,  is  of  a 
different  character.  Only  two  fifths  of  the  country  is  moun- 
tainous, but  this  part  extremely  so.  In  this  section,  very 
sensibly,  most  of  the  people  live,  as  in  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries; for  as  the  mountains  are  near  the  sea  the  majority  of 
the  early  settlers  soon  found  their  way  up  into  the  more 
healthful  and  agreeable  highlands.  The  chief  drawback  to 
these  is  the  difficulty  of  access ;  and  we  can  not  but  admire  the 
courage  and  endurance  of  those  stout-hearted  people  who 
settled  in  remote  places  among  the  mountains  of  Colombia, 
Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia,  and  amid  untold  hardships  there 
preserved  for  centuries  civilization  and  a  high  degree  of  cul- 
ture. 

MOUNTAINS 

The  great  mountain  chains  of  Colombia  constitute  the 
northern  terminal  of  the  great  Andean  system.  In  northern 
Ecuador  the  Andes  has  become  a  single  massive  chain;  but 
beginning  in  Colombia  with  an  irregular  mass  of  peaks,  the 
mountains  soon  divide  into  three  distinct  ranges,  the  East, 
West,  and  Central  Cordilleras. 

The  Central  Cordillera  may  be  considered  the  main 
range,  having  the  highest  peaks:  three  above  18,000  feet, 

14 


COLOMBIA  15 

and  a  number  nearly  16,000.  Many  of  the  summits  are 
crowned  with  eternal  snow,  and  many  are  volcanoes,  as  are 
peaks  in  the  southern  group  and  in  the  other  two  chains. 

The  West  Cordillera,  branching  from  the  Central,  follows 
the  coast  line  to  4°  N.  Lat.  where  it  leaves  a  space  on  the 
west  for  another  coast  ridge,  the  Serrania  de  Baudo,  which 
has  come  down  from  the  north  as  the  conclusion  of  the 
low  Panama  range  and  terminates  the  North  American  sys- 
tem. Between  this  and  the  West  Cordillera  are  the  valleys 
of  the  Atrato  and  the  San  Juan  Rivers;  the  former  flowing 
north  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the  other  south,  turning  into 
the  Pacific  where  the  low  Baudo  ends.  On  the  other  (east) 
side  of  the  West  Cordillera  is  the  Cauca  Valley  with  the 
Central  Cordillera  beyond.  These  two  Cordilleras  end  in 
low  hills  some  distance  from  the  Caribbean  coast. 

The  East  Cordillera,  with  the  Magdalena  Valley  between 
that  and  the  Central,  divides  into  two  branches:  one  run- 
ning far  north  dying  out  at  the  extremity  of  the  Goajira 
Peninsula,  the  other  more  to  the  east,  extending  into 
Venezuela. 

Curiously,  along  the  coast  of  the  Caribbean,  northeast 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena,  is  another  seemingly  inde- 
pendent range  of  mountains,  detached  from  the  East  Cordi- 
llera and  quite  in  line  with  the  Central:  the  Sierra  Nevada 
de  Santa  Marta,  which  has  snow  crowned  summits  rising 
16,000-17,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  entire  mountainous 
region  of  Colombia  is  subject  to  earthquakes,  which,  however, 
are  less  severe  than  those  in  Ecuador  and  Venezuela ;  in  some 
sections  there  are  volcanic  disturbances. 

PLAINS 

Between  the  mountain  chains,  besides  the  narrow  val- 
leys are  limited  plateau  regions,  the  latter  occupying  about 
900  square  miles;  while  more  than  half  of  the  country,  an 
immense  tract  east  of  the  Andes,  broadening  towards  the 


16  THE  NORTH  COAST 

southern  boundary,  is  a  great  plain  slightly  inclining 
towards  the  east  and  south:  the  northern  part  belonging 
to  the  Orinoco  Basin,  the  larger  section  at  the  south  to  that 
of  the  Amazon.  This  Amazon  region  has  an  area  equal  to 
that  of  the  entire  State  of  California.  Its  higher  portion, 
as  well  as  most  of  the  Orinoco  Basin  in  Colombia,  where 
there  are  wet  and  dry  seasons,  is  composed  chiefly  of  grassy 
plains  called  llanos.  Nearer  the  Amazon,  where  it  rains  a 
good  part  of  the  year,  the  country  is  heavily  forested. 


RIVERS 

Rivers  entering  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Most  important  at 
present  as  also  best  known  are  the  rivers  which  flow  into 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  Chief  of  these  is  the  Magdalena,  1020 
miles  long,  the  principal  route  to  the  interior.  The  most 
important  affluent  of  the  Magdalena  is  the  Cauca,  which 
enters  it  about  200  miles  from  the  sea,  after  descending 
nearly  15,000  feet  in  a  distance  of  810  miles.  The  Magda- 
lena has  many  other  tributaries,  500  or  more,  a  few  of  which, 
entering  from  the  east,  are  navigable  for  small  steamers. 
The  Atrato  River,  340  miles  long,  flows  north  between  the 
highlands  of  the  West  Cordillera  and  the  Coast  Range, 
later  turning  east  into  the  Gulf  of  Uraba.  Of  smaller  streams 
flowing  into  the  Caribbean,  the  Sinii  bears  considerable 
traffic.  Besides  these,  there  are  the  navigable  Zulia,  120 
miles,  and  the  Catatumbo,  108  miles,  which  by  way  of  Lake 
Marcaibo  in  Venezuela  also  enter  the  Caribbean. 

Rivers  entering  the  Pacific.  Into  the  Pacific  flow  many 
streams  carrying  much  water,  as  the  rainfall  of  the  region 
is  excessive;  but  the  courses  are  mostly  so  short  and 
the  fall  is  so  steep  that  few  are  navigable  for  any  con- 
siderable distance.  The  longest  of  them,  the  Patia,  270 
miles,  is  the  only  one  which  rises  on  the  east  side  of  the 
West  Cordillera.  Worth  noting  is  the  fact  that  this  river 


COLOMBIA  17 

and  four  others,  the  five  belonging  to  three  different  basins, 
rise  very  near  together  in  the  highlands  of  southern  Colom- 
bia; the  Cauca  and  Magdalena  going  north  to  the  Carib- 
bean, the  Putumayo  and  Caqueta  southeast  to  the  Amazon. 
The  Patia  penetrates  the  West  Cordillera  by  a  remarkable 
gorge  with  perpendicular  walls  several  hundred  feet  in 
height.  On  the  swampy  lowlands  the  river  channels  are 
navigable.  The  San  Juan  River,  180  miles  long,  is  nav- 
igable for  140  miles,  as  it,  like  the  Atrato,  flows  a  long  dis- 
tance parallel  with  the  coast  between  the  Baudo  Range 
and  the  Cordillera,  until  it  turns  west  into  the  Pacific. 

Amazon  Tributaries.  The  Amazon  receives  two  large 
tributaries  from  the  southern  part  of  Colombia:  the  Pu- 
tumayo, 840  miles;  and  farther  east  the  Caqueta,  1320  miles, 
the  last  also  called  the  Yapura,  especially  in  Brazil.  These 
rivers  are  navigable  by  canoe  and  by  steamers  of  shallow 
draft  for  hundreds  of  miles,  though  with  interruptions  in 
places  from  difficult  rapids.  The  Putumayo  is  the  better, 
having  been  ascended  a  distance  of  800  miles  from  the 
Amazon  in  a  steamer  drawing  six  feet.  (The  entire  length 
of  the  Hudson  is  350  miles.)  Smaller  rivers,  the  Guainia 
and  the  Vaupes,  unite  with  the  Casiquiare  from  Venezuela 
to  form  the  Rio  Negro,  another  important  affluent  of  the 
Amazon.  These  rivers  have  many  smaller  tributaries,  but 
the  section  has  been  little  explored  save  for  going  up  or 
down  the  main  stream. 

The  Orinoco  River,  which  part  of  the  way  forms  the 
boundary  between  Colombia  and  Venezuela,  receives  sev- 
eral important  tributaries  from  the  former  country:  the 
Guaviare,  810  miles  long,  the  Vichada,  312  miles,  the  Meta, 
660  miles,  and  the  Arauca,  480  miles.  Though  all  are  more 
or  less  navigable  the  Meta  is  the  most  important.  Joining 
the  Orinoco  below  the  Maipures  cataract  and  the  Atures 
rapids,  which  higher  up  obstruct  the  greater  river,  it  per- 
mits continuous  navigation  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Where 
joined  by  the  Meta  the  Orinoco  is  a  mile  wide.  The  Meta 


18  THE  NORTH  COAST 

is  navigable  for  150  miles  above  the  junction,  in  the  rainy 
season  500  miles,  to  a  point  but  100  miles  from  Bogota. 

CLIMATE 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  altitude  of  a  district 
as  well  as  its  latitude  affects  the  climate,  which  may  be 
modified  further  by  the  direction  of  prevailing  winds  and 
by  ocean  currents.  The  extensive  and  lofty  mountain 
ranges  of  Colombia  therefore  give  the  country  a  greater 
variety  of  climate  than  it  would  otherwise  enjoy,  with  tem- 
peratures agreeable  to  every  taste  and  suited  to  products 
of  almost  every  character.  The  configuration  of  the  moun- 
tain ranges  and  valleys  causes  a  further  difference  in  tem- 
perature and  in  rainfall  among  points  at  the  same  altitude; 
the  elevations  being  responsible  not  only  for  their  own  lower 
temperatures,  but  for  the  greater  heat  of  secluded  valleys, 
and  for  other  variations. 

In  the  forest  region  of  the  Amazon  there  is  much  pre- 
cipitation. The  open  plains  of  the  Orinoco  section  have  less 
rain,  with  a  dry  season  when  the  rivers,  which  overflow  in 
the  wet  season,  return  to  their  channels  and  the  vegetation 
withers.  Farther  north,  the  Sierra  de  Perija  of  the  East 
Cordillera  condenses  the  moisture  of  the  northeast  trade 
winds,  causing  heavy  rainfall  on  the  eastern  slope,  but 
having  a  dry  section  on  the  west.  The  Caribbean  coast 
near  Panama  has  plenty  of  rain,  which  diminishes  towards 
the  north,  Goajira  being  quite  arid.  Excessive  precipitation 
occurs  on  the  West  Cordillera,  on  the  Baudo  Range,  and 
on  the  southern  part  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  the  plains 
are  heavily  forested  and  unhealthful  like  the  valleys  of  the 
San  Juan  and  Atrato  farther  north.  The  lower  valleys  of 
the  Magdalena  and  Cauca,  shut  off  from  the  prevailing 
winds,  are  decidedly  hot.  These  and  other  lowland  plains 
have  the  tropical  climate,  in  general  great  humidity,  and 
many  dense  forests,  except  for  the  open  drier  llanos. 


COLOMBIA  19 

Above  this  region  are  enjoyable  climates,  the  subtropical 
ranging  from  1500  to  7500  feet;  still  higher  to  10,000  feet  the 
seasons  are  agreeably  temperate  in  character.  Beyond  this 
altitude  it  becomes  quite  cold,  with  bleak  plains  and  passes, 
here  called  paramos,  mostly  from  12,000  to  15,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Higher  yet  are  regions  of  perpetual  snow. 

The  Santa  Marta  Plateau,  the  upper  section  of  the  Cauca 
Valley,  the  greater  part  of  the  country  traversed  by  the 
East  Cordillera,  and  the  northern  end  of  the  Central  enjoy 
the  subtropical  or  the  temperate  climate.  Here  is  a  large 
proportion  of  the  white  population,  and  here  the  chief  indus- 
tries are  located.  In  the  tropical  forests  and  in  the  lower 
plains  and  valleys  the  annual  mean  temperature  is  from  82° 
to  over  90° ;  at  Medellin  with  an  altitude  of  5000  feet  it  is 
70°,  and  at  Bogota,  altitude  8600  feet,  it  is  57°. 

In  the  north  there  are  two  seasons  a  year,  a  wet  and  a 
dry,  though  not  everywhere  well  defined ;  nearer  the  equator 
there  are  four,  two  wet  and  two  drier,  as  the  sun  passes 
overhead  twice  a  year.  On  the  damp  paramos  the  moist  wintry 
seasons  are  long  and  cold,  so  these  parts  are  unfrequented  save 
by  shepherds  in  the  warmer  periods.  It  is  estimated  that  a 
section  of  150,000  square  miles,  twice  the  size  of  England, 
has  an  elevation  of  7000  feet  or  more,  and  there  are  few 
points  on  the  coast  from  which  an  agreeable  climate  could  not 
be  reached  in  a  few  hours  by  automobile  or  train  if  roads 
were  provided. 


CHAPTER  IV 

COLOMBIA:  THE  CAPITAL,  THE  STATES  AND 
TERRITORIES,  CHIEF  CITIES 

THE  CAPITAL 

Bogota,  the  Capital  of  Colombia,  is  situated  on  a  plateau 
or  savanna,  a  sort  of  shelf  over  8000  feet  above  the  sea,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  East  Cordillera.  The  shelf,  overlooked 
by  fine  snowclad  volcanoes,  has  a  low  rim  on  the  west  and 
a  high  ridge  on  the  east.  About  70  miles  long  and  30 
wide,  it  is  entirely  covered  with  towns  and  farms.  The  city 
is  the  largest  in  Colombia  (population  probably  150,000), 
on  account  of  its  being  the  capital  and  having  a  good  cli- 
mate; the  mean  temperature  ranges  from  54°  to  64°.  600 
miles  from  the  north  coast  and  210  from  the  Pacific,  Bogota 
is  the  most  difficult  of  access  of  any  of  the  South  American 
capitals.  Nevertheless,  the  city  has  always  been  noted  as 
the  home  of  culture  and  of  intellectual  tastes.  It  is  well 
laid  out  and  covers  a  large  area,  as  the  houses  are  of  only 
one  or  two  stories  with  interior  patios  or  courts,  as  in  most 
South  American  cities.  Many  streets  have  asphalt  pave- 
ments; there  are  hundreds  of  carriages  and  automobiles, 
also  23  miles  of  electric  tramways.  Like  all  South  Ameri- 
can cities,  it  has  large  plazas,  open  squares  usually  with 
trees  and  other  green  in  the  centre,  and  public  gardens. 
The  Capitol  is  an  imposing  building  covering  two  and  a  half 
acres.  Other  good  public  buildings  include  the  Presidential  Pal- 
ace, a  public  library,  a  museum,  etc.  Of  course  there  is  a 
cathedral  and  many  churches,  two  theatres  of  the  first  rank, 
several  fair  hotels,  a  large  bull  ring,  a  hippodrome,  polo 
grounds,  etc.  Here  are  telephones  and  electric  lights  as  in 

20 


COLOMBIA  21 

all  other  considerable  cities.     The  people  are  industrious, 
intelligent,  and  fond  of  amusement. 

A  more  precise  idea  of  the  geography  of  Colombia  and 
of  the  commercial  possibilities  of  the  different  sections  will 
be  gained  by  reviewing  them  in  order,  beginning  with  the 
north  coast,  going  around  the  outside,  and  concluding  with 
the  interior. 

STATES  AND  TERRITORIES 

The  Goajira  Peninsula,  a  Comisaria  at  the  northeast,  is 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Indians  who  are  practically  independent. 
They  gather  forest  products  such  as  tagua  nuts  (vegetable 
ivory),  breed  useful  horses,  and  do  some  trading  at  the  port 
of  Riohacha  in  Magdalena.  A  few  savage  tribes  make 
travel  in  some  sections  dangerous.  The  peninsula  contains 
much  wet  lowlands,  as  well  as  mountains,  extensive  forests, 
and  fine  fertile  country,  with  considerable  mineral  wealth 
yet  unexploited :  gold,  and  probably  extensive  veins  of  coal. 
Large  sections  covered  with  guinea  grass  are  capable  of 
supporting  great  herds  of  cattle. 

Magdalena,  adjoining  the  Peninsula,  is  a  Department 
a  great  part  of  which  is  low  and  hot.  The  inhabitants 
include  many  Indians,  a  friendly  tribe  on  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
Back  of  these  mountains  are  rich  valleys,  where  white 
settlers  have  been  disturbed  by  savage  Indians  who  live  on 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  East  Cordillera.  Among  the  products 
of  the  region  are  coffee,  cocoa,  sugar,  and  bananas.  The 
upper  valleys  are  the  better  settled  and  cultivated;  mineral 
wealth  including  petroleum  is  evident. 

Santa  Marta,  the  capital,  an  ancient  city  and  port, 
founded  1525,  has  recently  entered  upon  an  era  of  pros- 
perity, largely  due  to  the  enterprise  of  the  United  Fruit 
Company.  Finely  located  on  a  good  harbor  west  of  the 
Nevada  of  Santa  Marta,  some  distance  east  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Magdalena,  the  city  is  an  important  centre  of  the 
banana  industry,  to  which  it  owes  its  present  development; 


22  THE  NORTH  COAST 

other  agricultural  products  are  for  local  consumption.  The 
climate  is  hot  but  healthful,  though  the  banana  zone  is 
malarial.  An  excellent  hospital  is  maintained  by  the  United 
Fruit  Company.  Within  a  few  miles  are  regions  with  a 
delightful  temperature.  A  Marconi  wireless,  one  of  the 
most  powerful  in  South  America,  is  of  general  service, 
though  the  property  of  the  Fruit  Company.  Their  enormous 
banana  trade  is  served  by  a  100  mile  network  of  railways 
into  sections  favorable  to  this  fruit. 

Atlantic©  is  a  small  Department  occupying  the  flat  hot 
delta  of  the  Madgalena  River. 

Barranquilla,  the  capital,  is  a  busy  place  with  many 
resident  foreigners.  It  has  quays,  a  large  new  warehouse, 
hotels,  one  of  which  is  said  to  have  all  conveniences, 
theatres,  two  clubs,  electric  lights,  trams,  and  telephones. 
In  spite  of  the  heat,  which  averages  82°  for  the  year,  the 
deaths  are  less  than  25  per  1000,  a  percentage  better  than  in 
some  other  tropical  cities. 

Bolivar  follows,  a  very  large  Department,  with  the  Mag- 
dalena  River  for  its  eastern  boundary.  Bolivar  like  Atlan- 
tico has  vast  plains  suited  to  tropical  agriculture  and  to 
cattle  raising,  now  a  growing  industry.  The  great  natural 
resources  of  forest,  agriculture,  and  mineral  products  are 
but  moderately  developed.  The  breeding  of  horses,  donkeys, 
and  mules  is  a  profitable  business  followed  by  many.  Ten 
gold  mines  are  worked. 

Cartagena,  the  capital,  is  considered  the  most  interest- 
ing city  on  the  Caribbean  coast  and  one  of  the  most  pic- 
turesque in  South  America.  Its  massive  walls  and  fortifi- 
cations were  erected  at  great  expense  nearly  four  centuries 
ago — 1535.  It  has  fine  buildings  both  ancient  and  modern, 
and  comfortable  hotels.  Monteria  and  Lorica  are  busy 
commercial  cities  on  the  Sinu  River,  each  with  a  population 
of  20,000  or  more. 

Antioquia,  the  next  and  largest  department,  has  a  smaller 
coast  line.  The  coast  section  has  Bolivar  on  the  east  and  the 


COLOMBIA  23 

Gulf  of  Uraba  on  the  west;  but  the  larger  part  is  south  of 
Bolivar,  bordering  at  the  east  on  the  Magdalena  River,  with 
the  Departments  of  Santander  and  Boyaca  opposite.  At  the 
west  is  the  Atrato  River  and  through  the  centre  the  Cauca 
River.  All  these  rivers  are  more  or  less  navigable  by  steam- 
boats as  are  some  of  their  affluents;  others  at  least  by  rafts 
and  canoes.  Traversed  also  by  the  West  and  Central  Cordi- 
llera Antioquia  has  great  diversity  of  character.  It  is  the 
leading  Department  in  mining,  in  education,  and  as  centre  of 
industries;  it  is  among  the  foremost  in  agriculture,  has  the 
largest,  most  enterprising,  and  prosperous  population.  Nearly 
one-fourth  of  the  coffee  exported  from  Colombia  comes  from 
Antioquia,  that  from  Medellin  bringing  the  highest  price.  The 
forests  contain  hard  wood  and  rubber.  The  Department  has 
five  cities  besides  the  capital  with  a  population  of  20,000  or 
above,  and  30  more  with  a  population  over  10,000. 

Medellin,  the  capital,  the  second  largest  city  of  the  Republic, 
is  said  to  be  the  wealthiest  for  its  size  of  any  city  in  South 
America.  It  has  wide  streets,  well  built  houses,  many  factories, 
and  many  educational  institutions.  The  climate  is  excellent, 
the  altitude  being  4600  feet.  Here  is  the  National  Mint. 

Caldas,  south  of  Antioquia  and  formerly  a  part  of  it,  is  a 
small  Department,  very  mountainous,  with  Cundinamarca  east 
and  Choco  west.  The  population,  mostly  white,  possessing 
sturdy  qualities,  is  devoted  to  mining,  stock  raising,  and  to 
agriculture  of  various  zones.  The  rivers  have  rich  alluvium 
inciting  to  2600  mining  claims.  In  the  valleys  the  mean  tem- 
perature ranges  from  77°  to  86°.  Palm  straw  and  fibres  are 
employed  in  making  hats,  cordage,  and  sacking. 

Manizales,  the  capital,  is  an  important,  comparatively  new 
city,  founded  in  1846.  Although  distant  from  any  river  or 
railway  at  an  altitude  above  7000  feet,  it  is  growing  rapidly  as 
a  distributing  centre.  Sulphur  and  salt  mines  are  near  and 
thermal  and  saline  springs ;  large  herds  of  cattle  graze  on  the 
plains. 

Choco,  the  next  coast  region  to  Antioquia,  is  in  striking 


24  THE  NORTH  COAST 

contrast  to  Caldas.  An  Intendencia  bordering  on  Panama  and 
the  Pacific  as  well  as  on  the  Caribbean,  it  is  rich  in  possibilities 
for  mining,  and  for  agricultural  and  forest  products;  but  the 
excessive  rainfall  and  great  heat,  unpleasant  throughout  the 
district,  make  the  lowlands  swampy  and  unhealthful,  and  the 
whole  region  unattractive  to  settlement.  Less  than  one-tenth 
of  the  population  is  white;  negroes  form  the  great  majority 
of  the  rest,  and  there  are  some  Indians.  Of  the  latter,  there 
are  three  principal  tribes  in  the  Atrato  Basin  and  four  near 
the  rest  of  the  Caribbean  Coast.  The  Atrato  Basin  with  that 
of  the  San  Juan  forms  one  of  the  richest  mining  sections  in 
Colombia,  important  for  the  rare  platinum,  most  of  the  tribu- 
taries carrying  this  metal  with  gold.  The  San  Juan  Basin  is 
probably  the  richer  in  platinum.  Rubber,  cacao,  hides,  and 
timber  are  other  exports.  The  region  will  be  developed  some 
time. 

Quibdo,  the  capital,  is  a  busy  trading  centre,  which  within 
the  last  ten  years  has  increased  in  population  fourfold  in  spite 
of  the  disagreeable  climate. 

El  Valle,  the  Department  on  the  south,  again  is  a  striking 
contrast.  Although  including  a  strip  of  coast  with  the  chief 
Pacific  port,  Buenaventura,  the  name  of  the  Department  in- 
dicates the  part  deemed  of  the  greatest  importance;  and  the 
one  that  is  The  Valley  among  so  many  we  must  expect  to 
have  especial  merits.  With  an  altitude  of  3000  feet  and  up- 
wards, it  is  a  beautiful  garden  spot  between  the  West  and 
Central  Cordilleras,  where  plantains  grow  two  feet  long,  a 
bunch  of  bananas  weighs  200  pounds,  the  cacao  without  cul- 
tivation commands  a  higher  price  than  that  of  Ecuador,  where 
its  culture  is  a  specialty ;  and  sugar  plantations  are  said  to  yield 
for  several  generations  without  replanting  or  fertilizing.  At 
greater  altitudes  grow  the  products  of  temperate  climes.  Such 
a  region  must  some  day  receive  intensive  culture,  although 
now  the  leading  industry  is  cattle  raising;  since  the  upper 
classes  are  indolent,  it  is  said,  the  negro  laborers  also.  Yet  a 
brilliant  future  is  sure  to  come.  The  mining  outlook  is  good. 


COLOMBIA  25 

Many  claims  for  gold  mines  have  been  filed,  some  for  platinum 
and  for  silver,  one  each  for  emery,  talc,  copper,  iron.  There 
is  a  large  deposit  of  coal  and  of  rich  crystal.  The  rivers 
possess  auriferous  alluvium. 

Cali,  the  capital,  is  an  old,  but  progressive  and  important 
commercial  city,  with  a  fine  climate,  altitude  4000  feet,  mean 
temperature  77°.  It  has  fine  old  buildings  and  new  ones,  poor 
hotels,  banks,  automobiles,  etc.  Other  busy  cities  farther 
north,  are  Palmira,  27,000  population,  and  Cartago,  21,000. 

Cauca  follows,  five  times  the  size  of  El  Valle  but  with  no 
larger  population,  of  which  25  per  cent  is  white.  It  extends 
back  from  the  ocean  south  of  El  Valle  and  of  the  Department 
Huila  as  well.  The  region  has  many  undeveloped  coal  mines, 
and  other  minerals,  with  vegetation  tropical  and  temperate 
in  abundance.  In  some  parts  there  are  dense  forests.  Over 
4000  mining  claims  have  been  filed,  and  gold  and  platinum  are 
exported,  but  agriculture  is  the  chief  industry. 

Popayan,  the  capital,  was  founded  in  1536  at  an  altitude 
of  nearly  6000  feet.  At  the  foot  of  an  extinct  volcano  and 
17  miles  from  an  active  one,  with  a  good  climate  it  has  violent 
electric  storms  and  earthquakes.  It  has  some  fine  old  build- 
ings, a  university,  and  some  say  that  here  the  best  Spanish  in 
the  New  World  is  spoken. 

Narino,  the  last  Department  at  the  south,  has  a  large  settled 
Indian  population,  with  some  Indians  uncivilized.  It  contains 
a  number  of  volcanoes  a  few  of  which  are  active ;  several  rivers 
flow  into  the  Pacific,  the  Patia  the  most  important.  Gold 
mines  have  been  worked  from  colonial  times  and  gold  is  one 
of  the  chief  exports.  Other  mines  exist  and  2500  claims  have 
been  denounced.  Rich  copper  has  been  noted;  corundum 
and  sapphires  have  been  found.  Besides  gold  the  chief  ex- 
ports are  Panama  hats,  hides,  rubber,  coffee,  tobacco,  and 
anise. 

Pasto,  the  capital,  at  an  elevation  of  8650  feet,  at  the  base 
of  the  volcano  Galera,  has  a  beautiful  location,  a  fine  climate, 
and  a  hardy  industrious  people.  There  are  21  Indian  settle- 


26  THE  NORTH  COAST 

ments  near.  Barbacoas,  100  miles  from  the  coast,  is  a  con- 
siderable city  of  over  12,000  population  where  the  making  of 
Panama  hats  is  a  leading  industry.  Tumaco,  population 
15,000,  is  a  picturesque  island  port  with  a  better  climate  than 
Buenaventura. 

Putumayo,  a  Comisaria  east  and  extending  far  to  the 
southeast  of  Narifio,  is  on  the  northeast  boundary  of  Ecuador, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  watershed  between  the  river 
Napo  and  the  Putumayo,  which  latter  separates  it  from 
Caqueta,  both  rivers  affluents  of  the  Amazon.  The  northern 
part  with  an  elevation  of  3000  feet  or  more  has  a  comfortable 
climate. 

Mocoa,  the  capital,  is  in  this  section,  and  a  few  small 
towns,  several  entirely  Indian. 

Caqueta,  the  adjoining  Comisaria,  is  similar  in  character, 
the  higher  portion  a  good  cattle  country.  The  animals  with 
other  products  could  easily  be  shipped  down  stream  to  Manaos, 
where  they  would  command  high  prices.  The  lower  section 
is  a  good  rubber  district;  cinnamon,  cacao,  tagua,  hides,  oils, 
balsams,  sarsaparilla,  varnishes,  and  feathers  are  other  prod- 
ucts of  the  region. 

Vaupes,  the  next  Comisaria,  shares  the  characteristics  of 
the  low,  untrodden,  rainy,  forest  region  and  of  the  more  open 
and  agreeable  lands  higher  up,  a  promising  territory  for  the 
rather  distant  future.  In  the  Vaupes  section  the  rivers  are  of 
black  water,  near  which  are  no  mosquitoes,  therefore  a  more 
healthful  region.  Along  the  rivers  of  white  water,  which  are 
in  the  majority,  mosquitoes  are  a  terrible  pest.  The  distinc- 
tion generally  prevails  in  the  countries  of  the  north  coast. 

North  of  the  Amazon  region  is  that  of  the  llanos  belong- 
ing to  the  Orinoco  Basin.  There  is  hardly  a  real  watershed 
between  the  two;  in  a  number  of  places  channels,  especially 
in  the  rainy  season,  connect  different  tributaries,  besides  the 
well  known  Casiquiare  connection  between  the  Orinoco  and, 
by  way  of  the  Rio  Negro,  the  Amazon. 

The  Meta  Intendencia,  formerly  separated  from  Vaupes 


COLOMBIA  27 

by  the  Guaviare,  the  most  southern  tributary  of  the  Orinoco 
in  Colombia,  extends  to  the  Meta  River  on  the  north.  This 
section  with  some  country  farther  north  is  similar  to  the  llanos 
of  Venezuela,  chiefly  grass  lands  of  inferior  quality,  with 
patches  of  forest.  It  supports  some  cattle  and  might  a  great 
many  more,  although  much  of  the  pasture  land  is  very  wet 
in  the  long  rainy  season,  and  so  dry  in  the  short  dry  season 
that  in  many  districts  the  grass  practically  disappears.  The 
Meta  River  in  its  lower  part  has  Venezuela  on  the  north; 
higher  at  the  northwest  is  the  Casanare  region  (similar)  of 
the  Department  of  Boyaca.  Near  the  Meta  River  are  more 
towns,  a  few  cattle  centres,  richer  soil,  with  easier  outlet  to 
Venezuela,  to  which  the  few  exports  chiefly  go.  The  forests 
of  the  section  teem  with  deer  and  other  animals,  the  rivers 
are  full  of  alligators ;  the  only  entrance  to  Casanare  safe  from 
tribes  of  wild  Indians  is  the  Cravo  highway  from  Sogamoso, 
an  ancient  town  in  Boyaca,  where  Chibcha  priests  once  dwelt 
in  palaces  roofed  with  gold. 

The  Vichada  Comisaria,  so  recently  organized  as  not  to 
appear  on  any  map  (1921),  is  along  the  Vichada  River  be- 
tween Vaupes  and  Meta. 

Arauca,  a  small  Comisaria,  is  a  part  of  the  region  north 
of  the  Meta  River  between  Boyaca  and  Venezuela. 

Arauca,  the  capital,  on  the  river  Arauca  is  called  but  three 
days  by  water  (generally  seven)  from  Ciudad  Bolivar,  the 
eastern  port  of  Venezuela  on  the  Orinoco. 

Boyaca,  west  and  north,  except  for  the  Casanare  Province, 
is  a  Department  chiefly  in  the  tierra  fria  of  the  East  Cordillera. 
The  population  is  mostly  Indian  and  mestizo,  the  agriculture 
is  mainly  of  temperate  character:  wheat,  barley,  maize,  al- 
falfa, potatoes.  Mining  is  actively  carried  on:  gold,  silver, 
copper,  iron,  quicksilver,  marble,  have  been  denounced,  and 
157  emerald  claims.  Asphalt  is  worked;  there  are  salt  works 
at  Chita,  an  old  Indian  town,  population  11,000. 

Tunja,  the  capital,  is  called  a  fine  old  city  with  three  public 
libraries. 


28  THE  NORTH  COAST 

Santander  del  Norte,  north  of  Santander,  is  also  traversed 
by  the  East  Cordillera.  The  mean  temperatures  vary  greatly : 
46°  on  several  paramos,  and  81°  in  the  valleys  of  the  Cata- 
tumbo  and  Zulia.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  coal  are  mined. 
Rio  de  Oro,  tributary  to  the  Catatumbo,  has  rich  auriferous 
deposits,  and  what  is  now  of  greater  importance,  it  passes 
through  a  district  rich  in  petroleum.  The  varied  crops  are  the 
chief  source  of  wealth :  wheat  and  potatoes,  coffee  and  cacao. 

Cucuta,  the  capital,  altitude  1000  feet,  with  a  temperature 
of  84°,  is  an  important  commercial  city. 

Santander,  written  also  with  Sur,  south  of  Santander  del 
Norte  and  of  Magdalena,  has  Boyaca  on  the  east  and  south; 
Antioquia  and  Bolivar  are  across  the  Magdalena  River  on  the 
west.  Similar  to  Santander  del  Norte,  it  has  more  low  plains. 
Gold,  silver,  copper,  talc,  asphalt  are  found. 

Bucaramanga,  the  capital,  has  a  mean  temperature  rang- 
ing from  64°  to  84°. 

Cundinamarca,  south  of  Boyaca,  has  Meta  on  the  east, 
Tolima  and  Huila  south,  and  Tolima  west.  Less  than  one-half 
of  the  population  is  white;  about  one-third  is  on  the  high 
plateau,  the  rest  on  the  slopes  or  in  the  Magdalena  Valley,  or 
on  the  Orinoco  watershed.  The  scattered  population  is  in  no 
municipalities.  Agriculture  is  most  important,  the  land  near 
Bogota  being  especially  well  cultivated.  In  the  city  many  fac- 
tories are  operated  and  a  variety  of  trades  followed.  Mines 
are  widely  distributed:  iron,  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  coal, 
jasper,  etc. 

Bogota  is  the  capital  of  the  Department  as  well  as  of  the 
country. 

Huila,  south  of  Cundinamarca  and  Tolima,  has  Meta  and 
Caqueta  east,  Cauca  south,  and  Cauca  and  Tolima  west. 
Half  of  Huila  is  Government  land,  forest  and  mountain. 
Cattle  raising  is  well  developed.  Wheat,  maize,  rice,  coffee, 
sugar,  tobacco,  are  cultivated  on  a  large  scale.  There  are 
four  quartz  mines,  and  gold  placers  receive  attention. 

Neiva,  the  capital,  is  practically  at  the  head  of  steam  navi- 


COLOMBIA  29 

gation  on  the  Magdalena  River.  With  an  altitude  of  about 
1500  feet  it  has  an  even  temperature  approximating  80°. 

Tolima,  west  of  Huila  and  Cundinamarca,  is  a  long  De- 
partment with  the  Magdalena  River  on  the  east  and  the 
Central  Cordillera  west.  Cacao  and  coffee  are  raised  on 
the  warm  lowlands.  Twenty-six  million  coffee  trees  have 
been  producing ;  perhaps  4,000,000  more  are  now  in  bearing. 
Over  2,000,000  tobacco  plants  grow  on  the  foothills,  other 
crops  higher,  also  cattle.  Of  the  last  there  are  580,000,  also 
140,000  horses,  100,000  hogs,  with  fewer  sheep  and  goats. 
The  rivers  are  auriferous  and  60  properties  are  worked  for 
gold  and  silver. 

Ibague,  the  capital,  is  a  pleasant  and  important  city,  an 
active  commercial  town  with  mines  and  thermal  springs  in 
the  neighborhood,  exporting  a  variety  of  articles,  and  with 
a  considerable  cattle  trade. 


CHAPTER  V 
i 

COLOMBIA:  PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

SEA  AND  RIVER  PORTS 

Foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  chiefly  through  five 
ports,  Buenaventura  on  the  Pacific;  on  the  Caribbean,  Car- 
tagena, Puerto  Colombia,  Santa  Marta,  and  Riohacha. 
Besides  these  are  Tumaco  far  south  on  the  Pacific,  and  Vi- 
llamizar  in  Santander  on  the  river  Zulia,  near  the  boundary 
of  Venezuela,  well  situated  for  trade  with  that  neighboring 
country. 

Puerto  Colombia,  the  chief  seaport  of  the  country,  is 
situated  a  little  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena  River. 
Although  with  a  notable  pier  a  mile  in  length,  the  place 
is  small,  merely  a  landing  port  for  the  greater  city  on  the 
Magdalena,  to  which  leads  a  railway  17^2  miles  long. 

Barranquilla  is  frequently  mentioned  as  the  port  instead 
of  Puerto  Colombia,  since  it  contains  the  national  custom, 
house  through  which  at  least  60  per  cent  of  the  commerce 
of  the  country  passes.  Yet  it  is  not  a  real  seaport,  being  15 
miles  up  the  river,  which  is  inaccessible  to  ocean  steamers. 
When  a  channel  is  dredged  through  the  Boca  de  Ceniza 
so  that  such  steamers  can  reach  Barranquilla,  it  will  be  of 
great  advantage  to  commerce.  This  work,  previously  ar- 
ranged for,  but  blocked  by  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War,  may  soon  be  accomplished. 

It  might  have  been  better  to  make  use  of  the  "Dique,"  a 
natural  river  channel  60  miles  long  extending  from  Calamar 
to  the  sea  15  miles  south  of  Cartagena.  This  is  now  used  in 
the  rainy  season  by  river  steamers,  though  swamps  near  Carta- 

80 


COLOMBIA  31 

gena  present  difficulties.  Intended  improvements  in  the  chan- 
nel from  Sincerin,  where  there  is  a  large  sugar  plantation  and 
refinery,  will  make  it  navigable  for  boats  of  a  few  hundred 
tons.  Beginning  at  the  "Dique"  rich  agricultural  land  extends 
south. 

Cartagena,  the  port  second  in  importance,  has  a  fine 
natural  harbor  and  excellent  wharfage  facilities ;  the  custom 
house  depots  alongside  are  among  the  best  in  South 
America.  It  is  less  than  2000  miles  to  New  York  (4500  to 
Liverpool)  and  266  from  Colon. 

Santa  Marta,  northeast,  is  finely  located  on  a  good  har- 
bor. Like  the  ports  already  mentioned,  it  has  weekly  steam- 
ers to  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and  also  to  England. 

Riohacha,  population  10,000,  still  farther  east,  is  a  poor 
port  of  much  less  importance.  Merely  an  open  roadstead, 
it  is  seldom  visited  by  steamers  but  is  frequented  by  sailing 
vessels  from  Curagao  and  other  points., 

Buenaventura,  the  chief  Colombian  port  on  the  Pacific, 
with  a  population  of  9000,  is  situated  on  an  island  in  the  Bay  of 
the  same  name,  which  can  accommodate  vessels  of  24  foot 
draft.  A  new  pier,  679  feet  long,  just  completed,  has  twin 
docks  and  two  railway  approaches;  on  one  side  water  is 
28-44  f^et  deep.  The  place  is  regularly  visited  by  steamers 
and  is  an  important  port  of  entry  for  the  rich  Cauca  Valley. 

Tumaco,  farther  south,  a  town  of  15,000,  is  a  port  of 
some  importance  for  southern  Colombia,  the  bay  receiving 
ships  of  21  foot  draft,  which  are  served  by  lighters. 

Villamizar  on  the  River  Zulia  through  that  and  the 
Catatumbo  is  connected  with  Lake  Maracaibo  and  the 
Caribbean. 

Orocue,  population  2500,  on  the  Meta,  and  Arauca  on 
the  Arauca  River,  may  be  reached  by  steamer  from  Ciudad 
Bolivar  on  the  Orinoco  and  so  communicate  with  the  sea. 


32  THE  NORTH  COAST 


INLAND  TRANSPORTATION 

It  is  evident  that  the  physical  conformation  of  Colombia 
is  such  as  to  render  extremely  difficult  the  construction  of 
railways  or  indeed  roads  of  any  kind.  Lack  of  capital,  and 
internal  disturbances  have  contributed  to  retard  development 
in  this  direction.  The  rivers  therefore  have  been  of  prime 
importance  for  inland  travel  and  transport.  While  these  are 
supplemented  by  local  railways  and  cart  roads,  the  greater  part 
of  transportation  over  this  extensive  territory  is,  aside  from 
the  waterways,  accomplished  by  means  of  pack  and  saddle 
animals  over  caminos  or  bridle  paths  of  varying  degrees  of 
excellence. 

The  Magdalena  River  is  the  main  artery  of  traffic,  its 
normal  transportation  being  more  than  doubled  because  of 
the  important  railways  leading  to  or  branching  from  the 
River.  As  its  mouth  is  navigable  only  for  light  launches, 
nearly  all  freight  and  travel  comes  by  rail  either  from 
Puerto  Colombia  to  Barranquilla,  17  miles,  or  from  Car- 
tagena to  Calamar,  65  miles.  However,  Barranquilla  has 
some  traffic  with  Santa  Marta  by  means  of  steam  launches 
of  light  draft  through  channels  of  the  delta.  By  the  Car- 
tagena railway  freight  is  shipped  without  cartage  to  Cala- 
mar within  five  days.  At  this  town  of  10,000,  there  is  a 
good  pier,  but  poor  hotel  accommodations  for  the  traveler, 
who  may  be  compelled  to  wait  some  time  for  a  steamer. 
The  river  has  a  width  of  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile,  and 
an  average  depth  of  30  feet,  but  in  the  dry  season  shoals 
sometimes  prevent  for  a  month  the  ascent  of  the  river  by 
steamer.  Much  time  is  consumed  in  loading  wood  for  fuel, 
as  well  as  in  other  calls,  and  part  of  the  way  is  unsafe  for 
navigation  at  night.  This  at  least  has  been  the  case,  but 
recent  and  prospective  dredging  both  on  the  Magdalena 
and  the  Cauca  promise  much  better  conditions  in  the  future. 

The  Magdalena,  the  regular  route  of  travel  for  Bogota, 


COLOMBIA  33 

is  navigable  about  600  miles,  to  La  Dorada  on  the  west 
bank,  for  steamers  of  500  tons.  The  facilities  for  comfort 
for  the  six  to  nine  days'  journey  (which  has  been  prolonged 
to  three  weeks  in  periods  of  low  water)  include  staterooms 
with  electric  lights;  but  passengers  must  now  carry  their 
sheets,  pillows,  and  mosquito  netting;  and  some  take  food 
to  supplement  the  table  fare,  or  make  purchases  en  route. 
It  is  reported  that  100  eggs  were  bought  for  $2.00  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1919.  If  the  five  gliders  drawing  but  a  few  inches, 
which  have  been  ordered  in  France  for  the  Magdalena, 
prove  a  success,  facilities  for  travel  will  be  immensely  im- 
proved. A  hydroplane  service  for  passengers  and  mail, 
Barranquilla  to  Girardot,  is  now  in  regular  operation.  Other 
service  elsewhere  is  proposed. 

At  La  Dorada,  the  terminus  of  the  sail  on  the  lower 
river,  a  change  is  made  to  the  railway  70  miles  long,  which 
was  built  to  Ambalema,  population  7000,  to  avoid  the  Honda 
Rapids.  Overlooking  these  is  the  busy  town  of  Honda, 
population  10,000,  in  the  Department  of  Tolima,  for  300 
years  an  important  centre  of  trade.  A  suspension  bridge 
crosses  the  river  from  which,  by  a  rough  bridle  path,  until 
1908  most  of  the  traffic  went  to  Bogota  67  miles  distant. 
Some  freight  still  goes  over  this  trail  to  Bogota,  or  to 
Facatativa,  45  miles,  a  two  days'  ride,  as  well  as  a  few 
tourists,  better  to  enjoy  the  scenery,  to  escape  the  heat  of 
the  valley,  or  more  likely,  when  compelled  by  the  upper 
river  being  too  shallow  for  steamer  traffic. 

Usually  the  railway  is  left  at  Puerto  Beltran,  altitude 
755  feet,  population  2000  (just  below  Ambalema),  where  a  100 
ton  steamer  is  taken  for  the  100  miles  on  the  shallower  stream 
above  to  Girardot,  a  new  town,  population  13,000,  on  the  east 
bank,  with  ten  hotels,  and  rapidly  growing  in  commercial 
importance. 

From  Girardot,  altitude  looo  feet,  to  Facatativa,  popu- 
lation 11,000,  the  Colombia  National  Railway  climbs  the 
East  Cordillera  about  8000  feet  in  a  distance  of  82  miles 


34  THE  NORTH  COAST 

on  the  way  to  Bogota.  Twenty-five  miles  more  on  the 
Sabana  Railway,  a  road  of  a  different  gauge,  brings  one 
to  the  capital,  having  made  six  changes  from  the  ocean 
steamer:  first  to  the  railway  at  the  port;  next  to  a  steamer 
on  the  lower  river;  third  to  the  railway  at  La  Dorada;  at 
Puerto  Beltran  to  a  smaller  steamer  for  Giradot;  fifth  to  the 
railway  to  Facatativa;  thence  to  the  one  to  Bogota. 

Aside  from  the  traffic  to  the  capital,  the  Magdalena  with 
its  500  tributaries  is  of  enormous  service.  The  boats  call 
at  many  small  places  (sometimes  a  single  house)  along  the 
river,  from  which  mule  trails  (or  a  stream)  lead  to  interior 
towns  in  the  various  Departments.  The  first  river  port  of 
importance,  about  70  miles  from  Barranquilla,  is  Calamar, 
where  travelers  and  freight  from  Cartagena  are  taken  on 
board.  Magangue,  population  about  15,000,  is  the  next 
considerable  town.  Between  Magangue  and  Banco  the 
Cauca  enters  the  river. 

Up  the  Cauca  steamboats  run  170  miles  to  Caceres ;  also 
on  one  of  its  branches,  the  Nechi.  Through  most  of  its 
length  the  Cauca  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  Magdalena,  but 
confined  in  a  narrow  valley  its  course  is  far  less  smooth. 
Above  Valdivia  navigation  is  prevented  by  a  stretch  of  250 
miles  of  narrow  canon  and  rapids;  in  the  upper  valley  is 
another  navigable  section  of  200  miles,  from  Cali  to  a  little 
below  Cartago.  Being  disconnected  from  the  Caribbean 
this  section  must  seek  an  outlet  on  the  Pacific. 

The  San  Jorge  River,  nearly  parallel  with  the  lower 
Cauca  and  entering  the  Magdalena  a  little  farther  down,  is 
navigable  for  112  miles. 

At  Banco,  a  town  of  7700  on  the  Magdalena,  a  smaller 
boat  may  be  taken  up  the  Cesar  River  coming  from  the 
northeast;  at  Bodega  Central,  population  4000,  one  up  the 
Lebrija  towards  Bucaramanga,  to  which  there  is  another 
route  by  way  of  Puerto  Wilches  beyond.  From  the  latter 
a  railway,  long  ago  planned  and  in  operation  for  12  miles, 
is  now  in  construction,  imperatively  necessary  for  the  de- 


COLOMBIA  35 

velopment  of  this  part  of  the  country.  The  distance  is  90 
miles.  From  La  Ceiba,  70  miles  up  the  Lebrija,  a  mule 
trail  leads  to  Ocafia,  population  20,000,  as  well  as  one  to 
Bucaramanga,  which  is  also  reached  by  a  shorter  route 
from  a  point  22  miles  up  the  shallower  Sogamoso  when  that 
is  practicable. 

The  first  railway  above  Calamar,  found  at  Puerto  Berrio, 
population  1000,  nearly  500  miles  south  of  Barranquilla, 
leads  to  the  important  city  of  Medellin.  This,  the  oldest 
road  in  Colombia,  has  a  break  where  a  15  mile  ride  is  neces- 
sary across  the  mountains.  When  the  tunnel  contracted 
for  is  completed  the  entire  length  of  the  road  will  be  120 
miles.  Its  prospects  are  excellent.  >A  second  railroad  has 
Medellin,  the  Amaga,  running  23  miles  south  towards  the 
rich  Cauca  valley,  which  it  will  soon  reach.  These  two 
roads  are  said  to  carry  more  freight  than  any  others  in  the 
country. 

From  Mariquita,  population  6000,  on  the  Dorada  Rail- 
way, an  aerial  Ropeway  Line  goes  up  to  Manizales,  in 
Caldas,  an  excellent  service  for  freight.  From  Manizales 
a  railway  is  building  towards  the  Cauca  River;  15  miles 
open,  1921. 

From  the  Magdalena  River  opposite  Girardot,  where  a 
bridge  is  being  constructed,  the  Tolima  Railway  extends  a 
distance  of  99  miles  to  Ibague. 

Above  Girardot  the  steamers  in  high  water  run  up  to 
Neiva,  at  times  a  little  beyond.  Here  and  higher,  small 
boats  and  rafts  are  in  general  use. 

Cartagena,  in  addition  to  its  connection  with  the  Mag- 
dalena River,  has  commercial  relations  with  the  surrounding 
districts,  including  the  Choco  region,  which  might  be  served 
directly  by  ocean  steamers  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the 
Atrato  River  is  barred  to  them  by  sand  at  its  mouth,  though 
navigable  within,  280  miles  to  Quibdo.  As  only  boats  of 
three  or  four  feet  draft  can  pass,  and  as  there  is  no  good 
port  on  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  commerce  is  carried  on  through 


36  THE  NORTH  COAST 

Cartagena  by  transshipment,  as  to  cities  on  the  Sinu  River 
also. 

From  Buenaventura,  the  chief  Pacific  port,  a  railway 
leads  over  the  West  Cordillera,  100  miles,  to  the  important 
city  of  Cali.  From  here  the  road  branches  south  21  miles 
towards  Popayan,  and  east  16  miles  to  Palmira,  population 
27,000,  then  north  towards  Buga,  population  13,555,  and  Car- 
tago,  population  21,500.  From  Buenaventura,  steamboats  run 
up  the  San  Juan  River  140  miles,  which  with  its  tributaries  has 
300  miles  of  navigable  channels,  for  boats  of  7  or  8  foot 
draft  only,  on  account  of  sandbars  at  its  delta. 

From  Tumaco  several  steamers  ply  on  the  Patia  and 
other  rivers  to  Barbacoas  and  other  towns  for  many  miles. 

Transportation  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  has 
already  been  referred  to,  and  that  by  the  Meta  and  Orinoco. 
To  Puerto  Villamizar  on  the  Zulia,  there  is  a  railway  from 
Ciicuta,  45  miles  long.  From  this  road  much  traffic  of  the 
Department,  Santander  del  Norte,  is  transferred  to  steamers 
running  down  the  river  to  Lake  Maracaibo  in  Venezuela. 

OTHER  EXISTING  RAILWAYS  AND  PLANS 

In  connection  with  the  plantation  railways,  one  60  miles 
long  runs  from  Santa  Marta  to  Fundicion,  from  which  point 
a  continuation  has  been  talked  of  to  Banco  on  the  Magda- 
lena,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cesar  tributary.  At  present  it  is 
thought  better  to  extend  the  line  30  miles  toward  Ariguani, 
a  district  with  water  for  banana  irrigation,  timber,  and  good 
cattle  land;  and  later  to  Valle  de  Upar  to  tap  the  rich  cop- 
per and  coal  deposits  found  there. 

A  plan  has  been  presented  by  Americans  for  a  railway 
from  Bahia  Honda,  an  excellent  harbor  near  the  end  of  the 
Goajira  Peninsula,  to  pass  through  good  timber  and  cattle  lands 
and  Valle  de  Upar,  ultimately  to  reach  Bogota.  A  branch 
would  go  from  Tunja  to  a  port  opposite  Berrio,  and  cross 
roads,  from  Cucuta  to  Tamalameque  and  from  Puerto 


COLOMBIA  37 

Wilches  to  Bucaramanga.  The  work  requiring  six  years 
would  be  financed  by  Americans. 

The  Sabana  Railways  are  of  great  importance.  Besides 
the  railway  to  Facatativa,  two  others  lead  from  Bogota, 
one  south  about  20  miles  to  Sibate,  one  north  about  40  miles 
to  Zipaquira  and  Nemocon,  population  5000.  From  Zipa- 
quira, population  10,000,  a  road  is  being  continued  to  Chi- 
quinquira,  population  22,500,  in  Boyaca,  whence  it  is  planned 
to  carry  it  down  the  Carare  Valley  to  the  Magdalena. 
Reaching  the  river  below  La  Dorada,  handlings  of  freight 
will  be  saved,  and  the  time  of  the  trip  from  Barranquilla 
greatly  shortened. 

The  Tolima  Railway  it  is  expected  to  prolong  to  the 
Cauca  Valley  over  the  Quindio  Pass  to  Palmira  on  the 
Pacific  Railway  by  way  of  Zarzal  at  the  foot  of  the  Pass. 
Bogota  will  then  be  connected  by  an  all  rail  route  with  the 
Pacific  at  Buenaventura,  a  distance  of  210  miles. 

A  contract  has  been  made  for  a  railway,  to  be  completed 
in  1923,  from  Ambalema  (Beltran)  to  a  point  on  the  Tolima 
Railway,  to  give  Tolima  direct  connection  with  the  Lower 
Magdalena^  A  railway  from  Beltran  to  Flandes  opposite 
Girardot  is  said  also  to  have  been  arranged  for. 

A  much  desired  rail  connection  is  from  Cucuta  to  the 
Magdalena.  Although  a  road  to  the  river  port,  Tama- 
lameque,  265  miles  above  Barranquilla,  would  pass  through 
a  dense  tropical  forest  with  few  inhabitants  save  wild 
Indians,  to  avoid  paying  tribute  to  Venezuela  by  bringing 
the  freight  of  Santander  del  Norte  out  by  Barranquilla 
might  prove  well  worth  while ;  and  a  new  rich  forest  country 
might  thus  be  opened.  A  cart  or  motor  road  is  already 
under  construction. 

The  Pacific  Railway.  Besides  the  cross  country  connec- 
tion from  the  Cauca  Valley  to  the  Magdalena,  it  is  expected 
to  prolong  the  existing  road  from  Buenaventura  to  Cali, 
farther  down  the  Cauca  Valley  to  the  Medellin,  Amaga, 
Cauca  Railway  (Amaga,  a  city  of  10,000),  the  latter  soon 


38  THE  NORTH  COAST 

to  be  completed  to  the  Cauca  River ;  this  link  with  the  Mag- 
dalena  Valley  may  be  formed  first.  The  Cauca  Valley  Road 
now  running  south  towards  Popayan  will  later  be  prolonged 
to  Pasto  and  thence  to  the  Ecuadorian  frontier,  there  to  join 
the  Pan  American  all  rail  route,  which  may  be  concluded 
through  Ecuador  and  Peru  before  the  northern  connection 
is  made  through  Panama  to  Colombia. 

Among  other  railways  planned  is  one  from  Medellin  to 
Cartagena  by  way  of  Monteria. 

ROAD  TRANSPORTATION  AND  BUILDING 

Road  building  in  Colombia  is  only  less  difficult  than 
railways;  hence  few  good  roads  exist.  The  Central  North- 
ern extends  200  miles  or  more  towards  Bucaramanga;  as 
far  as  Sogamoso,  population  16,500,  140  miles,  it  is  used 
by  automobiles,  the  best  stretch  of  road  in  the  Republic. 
A  Northeastern  Road  extends  for  some  distance.  The  Car- 
retera  de  Cambao  leads  from  that  Port  on  the  Magdalena 
130  miles  to  Bogota,  thereby  avoiding  the  changes  by  way 
of  La  Dorada.  A  road  from  Bogota  to  Pasto,  the  Southern, 
is  partly  in  use  or  in  construction.  From  Pasto  it  is  being  con- 
tinued to  Tumaco  and  may  be  to  Ibarra  in  Ecuador.  A  road 
with  parts  in  service  leads  from  Pasto  by  way  of  Mocoa  to- 
wards Puerto  Asis  on  the  Putumayo,  important  for  national 
defense  as  well  as  for  the  development  of  the  region.  A 
road  from  Pamplona,  an  old  town,  population  14,000,  in 
Santander  del  Norte,  is  partly  made  towards  the  Casanare 
region.  In  Antioquia  several  roads  diverge  from  Medellin. 
The  Cauca  Valley  has  a  few,  on  one  of  which  from  Palmira 
to  Buga  auto  service  is  established.  Other  roads  are  in 
various  sections,  as  the  important  highway  building  from 
Cucuta  to  the  Magdalena.  Many  bridges  have  recently  been 
constructed. 

Aside  from  the  river  traffic  by  steamers  and  small  boats, 
the  greater  part  of  travel  and  transport  over  this  extensive 


COLOMBIA  89 

territory  is  by  means  of  horses  and  mules  on  caminos  or  bridle 
paths  of  varying  degrees  of  excellence,  many  of  them  extremely 
poor,  at  times  almost  or  quite  impassable ;  a  few  paths  are  for 
foot  passengers  only.  The  best  known  camino  is  from  Ibague 
over  the  Quindio  Pass  to  Cartago  in  the  Cauca  Valley.  Another 
ancient  way  of  great  importance  is  from  Neiva  across  the  para- 
mos of  the  Central  Cordillera  to  Popayan.  A  network  of  these 
caminos  overspreads  the  well  settled  part  of  the  country,  the 
meshes  greatly  varying  in  size. 


CHAPTER  VI 
COLOMBIA:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

While  the  varied  sources  of  Colombia's  wealth  have  already 
been  touched  upon,  some  paragraphs  follow  concerning  the 
different  lines  of  production  and  export. 

AGRICULTURE 

The  country  has  such  variation  in  altitude  as  well  as  such 
fertility  of  soil  that  not  only  does  almost  every  sort  of  vege- 
tation thrive  within  its  borders,  but  it  exists  in  most  of  the 
Departments.  An  enumeration  of  all  the  localities  where 
the  different  articles  are  found  would  be  needless  repetition. 
Reference  will  be  made,  however,  to  Departments  where 
certain  products  are  chiefly  grown.  With  proper  cultivation 
and  ample  labor  food  stuffs  might  be  produced  to  satisfy 
every  requirement,  but  many  are  imported  from  other  coun- 
tries more  easily  than  they  could  be  carried  from  one  sec- 
tion of  Colombia  to  another. 

Coffee,  from  the  commercial  and  export  point  of  view, 
is  the  most  important  agricultural  product,  in  quantity  corn- 
ing next  to  Brazil,  while  in  quality  the  coffee  by  some  is 
considered  second  only  to  Arabian.  Preeminent  for  its  cul- 
ture are  the  Departments  traversed  by  the  Central  and  East 
Cordilleras,  especially  Cundinamarca,  Antioquia,  Caldas, 
Santander  del  Norte ;  also  Cauca,  El  Valle,  Tolima,  and  the 
north  slope  of  the  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta.  In  Colombia 
coffee  grows  best  at  altitudes  of  2000-6000  feet,  the  higher 
the  milder  the  coffee.  At  5000  feet  no  shade  is  required, 
though  necessary  when  first  planted  in  most  places  where 
it  is  raised.  Everywhere  coffee  seems  to  prefer  sloping 

40 


COLOMBIA  41 

ground.  In  Cauca,  where  720  trees  are  planted  to  the  acre, 
they  produce  for  50  or  60  years.  Coffee  from  Santander, 
mostly  going  out  by  way  of  Maracaibo,  is  sold  under  that 
name.  We  hardly  think  of  coffee  as  a  product  of  the  tem- 
perate zone,  but  in  Colombia  it  is  so  classed,  growing  in  the 
same  altitudes  as  temperate  fruits,  vegetables,  and  cereals. 

Bananas  are  the  most  important  crop  of  the  lowlands, 
especially  since  the  exploitation  of  the  Santa  Marta  district 
by  the  United  Fruit  Company.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the 
bananas  raised  in  this  section  are  exported  by  the  company 
under  contract  with  private  growers.  Banana  land  of  the 
company  is  well  laid  out  with  irrigating  canals,  managers' 
and  laborers'  houses,  etc.  Export  has  increased  enormously. 
As  the  section  is  watered  by  five  rivers  and  many  brooks, 
it  is  especially  favorable  for  the  irrigation  needed.  The 
trunks  and  leaves  of  the  plant,  which  might  be  utilized  for 
cordage,  paper,  card-board  and  textiles,  at  present  go  to 
waste.  The  cost  of  clearing  and  preparing  land  for  the  in- 
dustry, with  350  trees  to  the  acre,  is  about  $45.  Within  two 
years  the  annual  receipts  are  $40,  largely  profits.  The  Com- 
pany owns  28,000  acres  of  improved  land  (10,000  devoted 
to  cattle)  and  twice  as  much  land  unimproved.  The  ban- 
anas are  free  of  export  duty  and  taxation.  The  fruit  may 
be  grown  in  all  the  lowland  sections  where  irrigation  is 
practicable,  which  is  almost  everywhere.  Before  the  War 
the  Germans  near  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  started  a  plantation 
of  12,000  acres,  one  third  of  which  is  under  cultivation. 

Plantains  are  widely  raised  for  native  use,  as  they  form 
the  chief  article  of  food  for  the  masses  in  the  lower  districts. 
Higher  up  maize  is  the  staple.  The  plantain  requires  little 
cultivation,  the  crops  are  heavy,  and  the  plantations  last 
for  years.  The  fruit  is  eaten  either  green  or  ripe. 

Sugar  cane,  grown  extensively  on  the  fertile  lands  of  the 
valleys,  without  fertilizer  and  with  occasional  hoeing,  gives 
crops  of  80  tons  per  acre,  averaging  40  tons.  It  flourishes 
up  to  7000  feet.  Small  primitive  mills  are  the  rule,  but  a 


42  THE  NORTH  COAST 

few  with  modern  machinery  have  been  established,  one  near 
Cartagena.  A  brown  sugar  is  chiefly  made  in  the  small 
mills,  pantana,  which  is  palatable  and  nourishing;  but  some 
is  refined  for  table  use  and  for  the  chocolate  factories.  A 
large  amount  of  sugar  is  used  for  chicha  (sugar  syrup  fer- 
mented with  corn),  for  denatured  alcohol,  and  for  aguardiente, 
a  kind  of  rum ;  the  last  is  a  government  monopoly.  The  sugar 
production  is  hardly  sufficient  for  local  needs. 

Tobacco,  which  some  think  equal  to  the  best  Havana, 
is  raised,  mostly  for  local  consumption ;  formerly  much  was 
exported  to  Bremen. 

Cacao  grows  wild  on  thousands  of  acres,  some  trees 
reaching  a  height  of  45  feet;  but  to  give  the  best  results 
it  must  be  cultivated.  It  is  planted  for  early  protection 
under  bananas,  together  with  other  trees  which  will  give  shade 
later.  Local  demand  consumes  most  of  the  supply.  Little 
attention  is  paid  to  its  cultivation,  though  the  Magdalena 
and  Cauca  Valleys  are  well  adapted  to  it.  Trees  60  years 
old  are  found  in  bearing. 

Coconut  palms  might  be  more  largely  cultivated,  plan- 
tations existing  chiefly  on  the  coast  and  islands.  The  fibres 
and  oil  are  useful  and  many  nuts  are  exported. 

Rice  grows  freely  in  rich,  hot,  irrigated  land,  but  it  is 
not  largely  cultivated. 

Cotton  of  excellent  quality  is  raised  from  Egyptian  seed 
on  the  Caribbean  coast  and  in  Antioquia ;  it  is  found  grow- 
ing wild  at  low  and  moderate  altitudes  all  over  the  country. 
But  little  use  is  made  of  it  except  where  factories  are  near, 
these  promoting  its  culture.  The  plants,  perennials,  grow 
12  feet  high.  The  cotton,  unrivalled  for  length  of  fibre,  is 
all  used  locally. 

Other  fibrous  plants  are  the  Agave  Americana  or  century 
plant,  which  is  cultivated  as  a  hedge;  enough  is  produced 
to  satisfy  most  of  the  home  demand  for  fibre  for  ordinary 
rope  and  twine,  also  for  making  common  packing  sacks, 
and  alpargatas,  sandals  worn  by  the  poorer  people.  Here 


COLOMBIA  43 

grow  ramie  and  other  shrubs,  the  fibre  of  which  is  used 
for  vegetable  silk.  Ramie  on  the  Bogota  River  yields  6 
crops  a  year  without  irrigation,  the  stems  6  feet  long  having 
a  very  tough  fibre.  Most  of  the  Magdalena  land  could  not 
be  better  used  than  for  raising  such  plants.  A  recent  in- 
vention to  extract  the  fibre  by  a  chemical  process  makes 
its  culture  important.  Jute  in  Colombia  on  the  same  soil 
as  ramie  reaches  double  the  height  attained  in  its  native 
country,  and  gives  two  cuttings  a  year,  the  first  crop  three 
months  after  planting. 

Wheat  gives  good  crops  on  the  highlands,  and  maize 
(corn)  grows  everywhere,  in  the  rich  lower  valleys  pro- 
ducing three  crops  a  year.  Potatoes  and  other  vegetables 
grow  in  various  altitudes. 

FORESTRY 

The  natural  wealth  of  the  forests  is  enormous,  though 
at  present  largely  inaccessible  for  lack  of  transportation 
facilities,  a  condition  which  might  easily  be  remedied  so 
far  as  the  forests  of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  of  the  Atrato 
and  Magdalena  Basins  are  concerned.  The  chief  products 
now  are  rubber  and  tagua  nuts. 

The  Rubber  is  of  both  the  caucho  and  the  hevea  varieties, 
the  former  of  inferior  quality,  procured  by  cutting  down  the 
trees,  the  hevea  or  fine  Para  by  tapping.  The  former  is  obtained 
by  the  Tolimenses  from  the  Rio  Negro  section,  the  latter 
by  Indians  of  Vaupes,  this  being  sent  down  to  Manaos. 
Rubber  also  comes  from  Choco,  being  collected  by  Indians 
and  negroes  who  exchange  it  for  goods  at  Quibdo,  at  places 
on  the  San  Juan  River,  also  at  Barbacoas,  back  of  Tumaco. 
A  few  plantations  have  been  started  in  the  Atrato  and  Mag- 
dalena Valleys  and  near  Tumaco.  Balata  and  chicle  are  also 
exported. 

Tagua  Nuts,  which  have  only  to  be  picked  up,  are  gath- 
ered in  the  forests  on  the  Pacific  slope  and  in  the  Atrato 


44  THE  NORTH  COAST 

and  the  Magdalena  Basins,  the  best  quality  from  the  Soga- 
moso  tributary  of  the  latter.  This  is  called  vegetable  ivory, 
from  which  buttons,  etc.,  are  made. 

Timber  of  great  value  exists,  a  little  of  which  is  ex- 
ported: Colombia  mahogany,  cabinet  and  dye  woods;  but 
there  are  few  saw  mills,  and  the  great  variety  of  trees  in  a 
small  area  renders  their  exploitation  difficult. 

Medicinal  plants  are  numerous:  cinchona,  sarsaparilla, 
ipecac,  balsams,  etc.  Many  other  valuable  plants  abound 
but  are  little  exploited. 

LIVE  STOCK 

The  Cattle  raising  industry  is  one  of  the  most  favorable 
for  immediate  profit.  The  best  quality  of  grass  is  found  on 
the  plains  of  Magdalena,  Bolivar,  and  Atlantico,  where  there 
are  large  areas  of  planted  pasture.  An  acre  and  a  half 
supports  a  steer.  Para  grass,  native  to  Brazil,  is  used  on 
wet  or  swampy  ground  and  guinea  grass  on  drier.  On  the 
eastern  llanos  are  millions  of  wild  cattle,  with  some  ranches; 
but  the  grass  is  generally  so  poor  that  the  cattle  are  some- 
times brought  to  the  Magdalena  Valley  to  be  fattened, 
though  this  is  difficult.  There  are  4,000,000  head  in  the 
country  with  80,000  annually  available  for  export.  Modern 
packing  houses  are  now  being  established  with  important 
Government  aid.  Material  and  supplies  for  construction 
are  exempt  from  import  duties;  and  outgo  for  20  years 
from  export  taxes.  With  attention  to  breeding  and  to  good 
fodder  for  fattening  the  production  may  rival  that  of  Ar- 
gentina. 

In  the  Sinu  Valley  region  are  said  to  be  1,000,000- 
1,500,000  cattle.  An  American  and  Colombian  Company 
holding  75,000-100,000  acres  along  the  River,  with  a  herd  of 
40,000  cattle,  is  now  (1921)  erecting  a  packing  house  costing 
$1,750,000  on  Morrisquillo  Bay,  60  miles  from  Cartagena. 
They  expect  soon  to  begin  operations,  slaughtering  500  head 


COLOMBIA  45 

a  day.  On  account  of  proximity  to  the  United  States,  the 
prices  of  Colombian  cattle  could  probably  not  be  equalled 
here  by  the  countries  farther  south.  A  packing  house  at  Call 
may  be  desirable. 

Other  Stock.  Horses.  As  an  absolute  necessity  on  ac- 
count of  the  scarcity  of  wagon  roads,  many  saddle  horses 
are  raised,  Andalusian  crossed  with  Arabian  or  English. 
Some  saddle  horses  are  imported  from  Peru.  Mules  and 
donkeys  are  found  in  large  numbers.  Goats  are  numerous 
in  all  quarters,  and  sheep  are  raised  on  the  highlands.  There 
is  a  large  exportation  of  hides  and  skins. 

MINING 

This  is  an  industry  of  great  promise,  the  as  yet  bare 
scratching  of  the  surface  showing  infinite  possibilities  for 
the  future.  Practically  every  mineral  of  commercial  value 
has  been  found,  including  the  rarer  metals.  The  lack  of 
proper  transportation  makes  some  sections  impracticable 
and  others  difficult,  but  important  work  has  been  carried  on 
in  many  places ;  opportunities  lie  open  in  many  more.  Gold  is 
found  in  almost  all  sections,  both  in  quartz  veins  and  in 
placers.  There  is  native  silver,  and  some  with  gold  and 
tin.  Platinum  ores  running  from  80  to  85  per  cent  are 
found  with  gold  and  other  metals.  Iron  is  widely  distrib- 
uted; also  copper;  often  with  gold,  tin,  and  in  primitive 
rock  formation.  Manganese,  lead,  mercury,  sulphur,  zinc, 
antimony,  arsenic,  nitre,  alum,  exist,  but  are  not  much 
worked  except  sulphur,  which  is  taken  from  some  volcanoes. 
The  working  of  the  salt  mines  is  a  government  monopoly, 
rock  salt  and  springs  existing  in  large  numbers.  From  the 
Zipaquira  salt  mine  in  Cundinamarca  the  Government  re- 
ceives a  revenue  of  approximately  $1,000,000  a  year. 

Coal  was  first  discovered  in  1865  near  Santa  Marta  Bay, 
and  subsequently  other  deposits.  Most  important  just  now 
are  the  beds  near  Cali,  which  are  thought  to  be  very  exten- 


46  THE  NORTH  COAST 

sive,  and  to  extend  through  the  mountains  to  the  Pacific 
slope.  It  is  said  that  enough  coal  could  be  mined  to  supply 
the  neighboring  Republics  as  well  as  Colombia.  The  prob- 
able supply  is  estimated  at  27  million  tons.  The  character  of 
coal  in  the  country  varies  from  lignite  to  bituminous.  A 
wide  vein  of  cannel  coal  leads  from  the  Nevada  de  Santa 
Marta  towards  the  Goajira  Peninsula;  an  anthracite  deposit 
25  feet  thick  extends  50  miles  north  and  south  near  the  Gulf 
of  Uraba.  Coal  deposits  exist  for  a  distance  of  300  miles 
north  and  south  of  Bogota  near  the  East  Cordillera,  others  in 
the  formation  of  the  Central  and  West  Ranges.  One  bed  near 
Cali  in  places  is  22  feet  thick.  Coal  beds  in  three  layers  are 
cut  by  the  Amaga  Railway,  and  the  locomotives  are  fired  on 
the  track. 

Petroleum  exists  in  quantity  indefinite,  but  hardly  to  be 
overestimated.  The  great  tract  of  country  extending  sev- 
eral hundred  miles  back  from  the  entire  south  shore  of  the 
Caribbean  apparently  contains  a  collection  of  oil  reservoirs 
which  may  exceed  in  magnitude  those  of  any  other  section 
of  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world, 
it  is  said,  is  there  so  great  a  display  of  seepages  and  of 
petroliferous  mud  volcanoes. 

Colombia  presents  three  more  or  less  distinct  regions 
with  various  fields  in  which  operations  have  been  conducted; 
others  in  which  the  surface  indications  will  doubtless  incite 
to  careful  examination  in  the  future.  The  three  well  known 
regions  are  the  Caribbean,  the  Magdalena,  and  the  Mara- 
caibo;  the  last  two  are  also  spoken  of  together  as  the  Mag- 
dalena-Santander  Field,  since  an  oil  belt  extends  from  Vene- 
zuela south-southwest  across  Santander  and  the  Magdalena 
River.  But  as  a  mountain  range  separates  the  Maracaibo 
Basin  from  the  Magdalena  Valley,  the  two  are  quite  distinct. 

The  Caribbean  Region  which  extends  along  the  coast 
from  Riohacha  to  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  has  300  or  more  square 
miles  of  supposedly  productive  territory.  Many  American 
companies  have  obtained  concessions;  more  than  100  are 


COLOMBIA  47 

organized  for  the  exploitation  of  this  and  other  districts. 
So  rapidly  have  sections  been  taken  up  that  a  considerable 
part  of  the  coastal  tract  west  of  the  Magdalena  is  already 
occupied.  British  interests  also  have  acquired  extensive 
holdings  in  the  Republic.  Emissions  of  gas  occur  in  many 
places,  this  being  the  first  country  in  South  America  where 
large  amounts  have  been  observed.  Among  the  petroliferous 
mud  volcanoes  is  the  largest  known  anywhere.  In  the 
Tubara  field  is  a  well  3000  feet  deep  from  which  enormous 
quantities  of  gas  came  off.  It  has  been  proposed  to  pipe 
the  gas  to  Barranquilla  for  use  in  the  city. 

The  Magdalena  pool  or  region  extends  along  the  river 
valley  for  several  hundred  miles.  The  fields  already  occu- 
pied are  mainly  on  the  east  side.  In  this  section  the  first 
oil  gusher  of  Colombia  was  brought  in  not  far  from  Bar- 
ranca Bermeja,  about  400  miles  south  of  Barranquilla.  A 
second  well  2270  feet  deep  shot  oil  over  the  derrick  several 
hours  before  it  could  be  capped.  It  was  rated  at  from  2000 
to  20,000  barrels  daily.  Steady  flow  is  estimated  at  6000 
to  8000  barrels  daily.  The  oil,  which  is  dark  with  some 
asphalt,  gives  about  30  per  cent  gasoline,  6  of  kerosene,  20 
lubricating  oil,  and  12  asphalt.  A  pipe  line  and  wagon  road 
are  being  constructed  from  the  three  wells  drilled  near  the 
Colorado  River  35  miles  to  Barranca  Bermeja  where  a  re- 
finery has  been  erected.  It  is  said  that  this  is  to  supply 
Colombia  with  gasoline,  kerosene,  and  lubricants  at  prices  not 
above  those  of  New  York.  The  use  of  residual  fuel  oil  on  the 
river  steamers  will  greatly  facilitate  their  operation.  It  is 
likely  that  a  larger  refinery  will  be  erected  at  Cartagena  or 
as  rumored  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena,  but 
the  cost  of  reported  pipe  lines  300  or  400  miles  long  in  this 
region  would  be  prohibitive.  Tank  steamers  will  well  serve 
the  purpose. 

Higher  up  the  river  near  Honda  is  the  Tolima  field  where 
live  seepages  occur  and  a  well  has  been  drilled.  [Many  loca- 
tions have  been  secured  in  a  stretch  of  several  hundred  miles 


48  THE  NORTH  COAST 

along  the  valley.]  This  field  includes  the  upper  Magdalena 
Basin,  with  which  are  classed  the  groups  on  the  edge  of  the 
San  Martin  and  Casanare  plains  east  of  the  Cordillera.  In 
the  Orinoco  Basin  oil  has  been  seen  floating  on  the  surface 
of  the  rivers. 

The  Maracaibo  Basin,  which  is  chiefly  in  Venezuela,  has 
a  section  running  over  into  Colombia  where  the  Barco  con- 
cession is  located.  An  area  of  more  than  a  million  acres  is 
occupied  by  an  American  company.  Here  oil  seepages  in- 
clude some  wonderful  springs.  Oil  from  one  of  these  runs 
a  small  refinery  which  produces  25  barrels  a  day.  The  oil 
with  a  loss  of  only  i.i  per  cent  is  said  essentially  to  match 
the  high  grade  Pennsylvania  oil,  selling  for  $4.00  a  barrel 
at  the  well.  Wells  were  first  drilled  on  the  Venezuelan  side 
of  the  Rio  de  Oro,  tributary  to  the  Catatumbo;  later  on 
the  Colombian  side. 

There  is  further  a  Pacific  district  extending  north  and 
south  from  Buenaventura  a  distance  of  60  or  70  miles,  from 
Quibdo  on  the  Atrato  to  Cali  on  the  Cauca  with  a  small 
section  on  the  coast.  The  probable  productive  area  is  18 
miles  but  none  is  proved. 

The  location  of  these  extensive  deposits,  many  within 
200  miles  of  tide  water,  is  of  prime  importance  to  the  com- 
mercial world,  especially  because  of  their  proximity  to  the 
Panama  Canal,  soon  to  be  one  of  the  great  shipping  routes 
of  the  world.  Moreover  the  port  of  Cartagena,  which 
already  has  several  refineries  and  will  serve  as  the  chief 
depot  of  export  and  supplies,  is  nearer  to  New  York  than 
is  Tampico  by  400  miles,  than  Galveston,  Texas,  by  50  miles. 
It  is  also  much  nearer  to  London,  to  Panama,  and  to  our 
own  Pacific  Coast.  Clearly,  the  development  of  the  petro- 
leum deposits  of  Colombia  is  of  the  greatest  interest  and 
importance  to  the  United  States.  It  is  believed  that  its  oil 
fields  will  equal  or  surpass  those  of  Peru. 

Platinum.  At  the  moment  the  greatest  mining  wealth 
is  in  gold,  with  a  good  bit  in  platinum.  Over  $2,000,000 


COLOMBIA  49 

worth  of  the  latter  was  exported  in  1917.  Platinum,  usually 
with  gold,  is  found  in  rivers  near  the  Pacific:  the  Atrato, 
Condoto,  Platina,  and  San  Juan.  Operations  have  been  car- 
ried on  in  several  districts.  The  concessions  of  an  American 
company  include  a  tract  on  the  San  Juan  and  one  on  its 
tributary  Condoto  and  its  branches,  with  holdings  north  and 
east  of  the  river  deposits.  By  means  of  a  small  wood  burn- 
ing dredge  with  annual  capacity  of  but  250,000  cubic  yards, 
about  $600,000  worth  of  platinum  was  obtained  in  1918  when 
the  Government  price  was  fixed  at  $105  an  ounce.  With 
a  second  and  larger  dredge  now  operating  and  a  third  ex- 
pected soon,  much  greater  production  will  be  realized.  In 
1920  the  value  fluctuated  from  $70  to  $165  an  ounce.  In 
June,  1921,  it  was  $75.  The  value  of  the  two  tracts  is  esti- 
mated at  $52,000,000  at  the  former  Government  price.  Costs 
are  little  greater  than  in  the  California  and  New  Zealand 
fields,  and  with  suitable  precautions  taken  in  the  way  of 
drainage,  mosquito  netting,  etc.,  as  at  Panama,  and  with 
good  medical  attendance,  health  conditions  have  been  made 
about  the  same  as  on  the  Isthmus.  Extraordinary  platinum 
values  have  been  shown;  the  gravel  handled  in  1918  fur- 
nishing $2.50  gold  and  platinum  per  cubic  yard.  The  ex- 
tensive use  of  platinum  in  dental  work,  in  jewelry,  and  for 
important  though  limited  service  in  certain  manufactures, 
in  sheet,  wire,  and  granulated  form,  indicates  an  annual  need 
of  165,000  ounces  in  the  United  States  alone.  A  unique 
opportunity  is  offered  in  Colombia  for  the  production  of 
this  valuable  metal. 

Gold.  The  gold  of  the  Choco  placers  has  been  widely 
known  since  the  Spanish  Conquest.  Four  hundred  million 
dollars  was  taken  by  the  Castilians  from  shallow  waters 
and  easily  worked  river  banks.  In  recent  years  a  number 
of  companies  have  been  operating.  The  Pato  mines  cover 
40,000  acres  near  Zaragoza,  population  2700,  Antioquia, 
where  a  dredge  is  operated.  At  the  Nechi  mines  the 
dredging  cost  is  9  cents  a  yard,  the  return  about  75  cents. 


50  THE  NORTH  COAST 

In  Antioquia  there  are  20  rivers  with  gold  alluvium,  but 
operations  are  chiefly  on  the  Cauca,  Nechi,  Pato,  and  Force. 
The  bench  gravel  is  very  deep  and  can  be  worked  profitably 
(except  at  times  by  the  natives)  only  with  machinery,  as 
is  the  case  generally.  Therefore  considerable  capital  is 
necessary  for  a  successful  enterprise.  More  than  12,000 
gold  bearing  sites  are  known  in  Antioquia ;  many  in  Narino, 
Caldas,  El  Valle,  Tolima  and  Choco.  The  gold  production 
in  Colombia  since  the  Conquest  is  estimated  as  above  $600,- 
000,000  and  that  of  silver  as  $30,000,000. 

Emeralds.  The  most  famous  mining  industry  of  the 
country  is  emeralds;  for  nowhere  else  are  they  produced 
in  quantity  and  here  are  the  best.  The  mines  were 
worked  long  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  actual 
labor  has  been  performed  by  the  Indians  ever  since.  The 
mining  has  been  a  Government  monopoly.  The  area  is  a 
region  of  4000  square  miles,  but  the  only  mine  recently 
operated  is  the  Muzo,  92  miles  northwest  of  Bogota.  It  is 
now  worked  by  the  open  system  though  formerly  by  tunnel. 
The  workers  live  on  the  ground  in  buildings  provided  for 
the  men  and  officers,  with  police  to  prevent  thieving.  Pres- 
ent operations  are  in  almost  vertical  cliffs  rising  from  100  to 
550  feet  above  small  valleys.  The  loose  soil  is  not  removed 
by  water,  as  is  stated  elsewhere;  the  emeralds  are  separated 
from  the  soil  by  a  dry  method ;  water  is  used  to  carry  away 
the  detritus  and  also  to  wash  the  residue  left  by  material 
from  rotten  veins  in  order  to  expose  small  emerald  crys- 
tals. The  output  in  normal  years  approaches  800,000  carats. 
No  attempt  should  be  made  to  obtain  a  possible  concession 
without  thorough  investigation  and  ample  capital.  The 
same  may  well  be  said  of  any  mining  venture.  A  concession 
for  emerald  mining  has  been  secured  by  an  American 
company. 


COLOMBIA  51 

OTHER  INDUSTRIES 

Manufacturing  is  fostered  by  high  duties  on  many  goods ; 
further  by  concessions  such  as  exemption  from  taxes,  land 
grants,  or  money,  to  persons  establishing  factories.  In  re- 
turn the  goods  must  be  sold  lower  than  those  imported. 
Some  large  business  firms  finance  other  enterprises  such  as 
coffee  and  factories.  Of  manufactures  textiles  are  the  most 
important.  In  Barranquilla  there  are  200  British  electric 
looms  run  by  boys  and  women;  British  yarns  are  imported 
and  worked  up  into  domestics  and  drills;  there  are  other 
factories  at  Bogota,  Cartagena,  Medellin,  and  two  for  fine 
woolen  cloth  at  Bogotd.  Some  cotton  spinning  is  done;  two 
new  spinning  mills  in  Barranquilla  each  have  2500  spindles. 
In  cottages  are  many  looms  for  the  spinning  of  wool,  in  which 
the  Indians  are  very  proficient. 

In  one  place  or  another  are  factories  of  almost  every 
kind:  silk,  flour,  chocolate,  matches,  shoes,  tanneries,  ice, 
mineral  waters,  breweries,  tiles,  iron  and  steel,  glass,  candles, 
soap,  etc.  Bogota  has  the  largest  number  of  factories,  about 
40,  Medellin  the  next;  others  are  well  scattered  over  the 
country.  Few  do  much  more  than  supply  local  wants,  partly 
on  account  of  the  difficulties  of  transportation. 

Export.  The  only  manufactured  product  important  in 
export  is  Panama  hats.  The  principal  centers  of  the  industry 
are  Antioquia,  Narino,  Huila,  and  Santander  Sur.  The  hats 
are  made  of  toquilla  palm,  the  young  leaves  of  which  are  cut 
off,  split  into  thin  strips  by  a  small  wooden  knife,  spread  out 
in  the  sun  to  dry,  and  then  woven.  The  hats  are  not  made 
under  water,  but  the  straw  must  be  kept  very  damp  to  avoid 
breaks  and  splits;  so  weavers  sometimes  go  into  damp 
caves.  Near  Pasto,  Narino,  hats  are  made  almost  equal  in 
fineness  to  those  of  Montecristi,  Ecuador.  The  industry  has 
a  bright  future  unless  Japan  by  cheaper  labor  drives  the 
South  American  product  from  the  market.  To  prevent  this 
the  export  of  raw  straw  may  be  forbidden. 


52  THE  NORTH  COAST 

INVESTMENTS 

Colombia  obviously  offers  a  wide  and  varied  field  for 
investments,  but  like  the  other  South  American  Republics, 
on  account  of  low  wages,  it  presents  no  opportunities  favor- 
able to  ordinary  laborers  unless  in  agriculture.  An  immi- 
grant may  receive  a  free  grant  of  land  of  6175  acres,  which 
he  must  within  ten  years  cultivate  over  one  third  of  the 
area;  or  if  cattle  lands,  two  thirds  must  be  occupied. 

Various  forms  of  agriculture  may  be  attractive  to  persons 
of  moderate  capital :  sugar  cane,  bananas,  coffee,  cacao,  cotton, 
fruits,  etc.,  as  also  agave  or  other  fibre  material.  Tagua  groves 
in  baldios  may  be  exploited. 

Discoverers  of  mines  in  baldios,  Government  lands,  have  a 
preferential  right  to  1250  acres  of  land  adjoining  the  mines 
denounced.  The  abundance  of  water  power  is  of  great  value 
to  investors  of  every  kind,  being  equally  important  for  mining, 
factories,  and  agriculture. 

Factories  on  account  of  high  tariffs  make  excellent  profits. 
Cattle  and  sheep  raising  offer  good  prospects.  Public  works 
including  drainage,  water  supply,  sewers,  road  and  railway  con- 
struction, bridges,  and  development  of  electric  power  should 
afford  many  and  varied  opportunities. 


CHAPTER  VII 

VENEZUELA:  AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  ETC. 

East  of  Colombia  is  the  only  other  Republic  on  the  north 
coast  of  South  America,  Venezuela. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  Next  to  Colombia  in  position,  Venezuela  is  also 
next  in  size.  Sixth  of  the  South  American  Republics  in  area, 
her  territory  covers  about  394,000  square  miles,  equal  to 
that  of  California,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico. 

Population.  With  approximately  3,000,000  inhabitants, 
Venezuela  is  entitled  to  the  same  rank  in  population,  for 
though  Chile  with  smaller  area  surpasses  her  in  this  respect, 
Bolivia  with  greater  extent  of  territory  probably  has  fewer 
inhabitants.  As  neither  country  has  accurate  statistics  to 
consult  there  is  some  uncertainty  about  the  matter. 

Boundary.  Venezuela  is  irregular  in  outline,  but  in  gen- 
eral her  boundary  is  as  follows.  The  Caribbean  Sea  is  on 
the  north,  the  Atlantic  northeast,  British  Guiana  east;  also 
a  part  of  Brazil  is  east  of  a  southern  projection  of  Venezuela ; 
Brazil  is  on  the  south,  with  Colombia  also  south  of  a  western 
projection ;  Colombia  alone  is  on  the  west. 

HISTORY 

The  land  of  Venezuela  was  sighted  by  Columbus  in  1498; 
in  1499  it  was  explored  to  some  extent  by  Alonzo  de  Ojeda, 
who  gave  the  country  its  name  (Little  Venice),  the  Indian 
dwellings  on  piles  in  Lake  Maracaibo  reminding  him  of  the 

53 


54  THE  NOKTH  COAST 

famous  Italian  city.  Settlements  were  made  early  in  the 
i6th  century,  the  first  especially  for  the  sake  of  the  rich 
pearl  fisheries.  On  account  of  the  bad  faith  and  cruelty 
of  the  Spaniards  and  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  natives,  many 
disorders  and  atrocities  occurred,  accompanied  by  quarrels 
among  the  Spaniards  themselves. 

In  1810  the  citizens  of  Caracas  deposed  the  Governor ;  the 
following  year  independence  was  declared,  but  it  was  not 
secured  until  the  Royalists  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Boyaca  in  1819.  The  Great  Colombian  Republic  was  then 
formed  by  General  Bolivar,  though  the  last  royalist  adhe- 
rents did  not  give  up  until  1823.  Venezuela  withdrew  from 
the  Union  in  1830;  the  hero  and  patriot  Bolivar  died  the 
same  year.  Many  internal  difficulties  and  changes  of  gov- 
ernment have  characterized  the  period  of  independence, 
though  comparative  quiet  has  succeeded  the  exit  of  Castro 
in  1909. 

GOVERNMENT 

In  contrast  with  Colombia,  the  Republic  is  a  federal  and 
not  a  centralized  union.  It  has  the  usual  three  branches: 
a  President  with  his  Cabinet  forms  the  Executive  Depart- 
ment; there  are  two  Houses  of  Congress;  also  a  Supreme 
Court. 

The  twenty  States  have  each  a  President  and  a  Legisla- 
ture, a  Supreme  and  other  Courts.  The  two  Territories 
and  the  Federal  District  are  administered  by  Governors 
appointed  by  the  President,  who  is  elected  for  seven  years. 

The  names  of  the  States  and  of  their  capitals  follow, 
with  their  populations  estimated,  as  until  recently  no  census 
had  been  taken  since  1897.  The  new  figures  (December, 
1921)  are  received  only  for  the  Territories.  The  Coastal 
States  beginning  at  the  northwest  are  Zulia,  Falcon,  Yara- 
cuy,  Carabobo,  Aragua,  the  Federal  District,  Miranda, 
Anzoategui,  Sucre,  Monagas.  Anzoategui  and  Monagas  are 


VENEZUELA  55 

also  Llano  States,  with  Guarico,  Cojedes,  Portuguesa,  Za- 
mora,  and  Apure.  Tachira,  Merida,  and  Trujillo  are  Moun- 
tain States;  Lara,  north  of  Trujillo,  almost  comes  into  the 
coast  region.  Nueva  Esparta  is  an  Island  State.  Bolivar, 
south  of  the  Orinoco,  lies  between  the  two  Territories,  Delta 
Amacuro  and  Amazonas. 


STATES 

POPULA- 
TION 

CAPITALS 

POPULA- 
TION 

ALTITUDES, 
in  Feet 

Zulia  

185,000 

Maracaibo  

50,000 

20 

Palc6n  .         .... 

170,000 

Coro  

20,000 

Yaracuy  

10^,000 

San  Felipe  

15,000 

808 

Carabobo  

200,000 

Valencia  

60,000 

1.577 

Aragua  

115,000 

Maracay  

15,000 

1.4.6^ 

Federal  District  . 

137,000 

Caracas.  .  . 

100,000 

•i  0^6 

Miranda  

173,000 

Ocumare  del  Tuy.  .  . 

10,000 

693 

Anzoategui  

162,000 

Barcelona  

16,000 

4.^ 

Sucre  

I  I7.OOO 

Cumand  

15,000 

Monagas  

90,000 

Maturfn  

16,000 

2AA 

Guarico  

22  1  ,OOO 

Calabozo  

10,000 

^10 

Cojedes  

75.OOO 

San  Carlos  

12,000 

4Q5 

Portuguesa  

115,000 

Guanare  

1  1  ,000 

636 

Zamora  

75.OOO 

Barinas  .    . 

7.OOO 

CQ4. 

Apure  

30,000 

San  Fernando  . 

8,000 

24.0 

Tachira  

I^.OOO 

San  Crist6bal  

17,000 

2.  722 

MeYida  

115,000 

Me'rida  

15,000 

5,415 

Trujillo  

184,000 

Trujillo  

12,000 

2.64.0 

Lara  

231,000 

Barquisimeto  

35.OOO 

1,868 

Nueva  Esparta  

60,000 

La  Ascunci6n  

•3,000 

356 

Bolivar  

70,000 

Ciudad  Bolivar 

20  ooo 

125 

TERRITORIES 
Delta  Amacuro  

12,258 

Tucupita  

1,000 

t 

Amazonas.  .  .  .  

7,298 

San      Fernando     de 

Atabapo  

400 

t 

Figures  for  the  area  of  the  States  and  others  omitted 
are  unavailable. 


56  THE  NORTH  COAST 


POPULATION 

The  number  of  inhabitants,  estimated  as  a  trifle  less  than 
3,000,000,  is  about  seven  to  a  square  mile.  Seventy  per  cent 
of  the  people  are  called  poor,  hence  with  a  rather  small 
purchasing  power.  The  Federal  District  has  about  15  per- 
sons to  the  mile,  the  density  in  general  decreasing  in  pro- 
portion to  the  distance  from  the  capital.  The  Guayana 
region,  the  Delta,  and  Apure,  supposed  to  have  less  than 
half  a  person  to  a  mile,  are  among  the  least  populated  re- 
gions of  the  globe. 

The  white  population  is  ranked  as  about  10  per  cent  of 
the  whole,  the  mestizos,  those  of  mixed  race,  as  70  per  cent ; 
the  rest  are  Africans,  Indians,  and  foreigners.  About  fy  °t 
a  million  live  in  48  towns ;  75,000  are  engaged  in  agriculture. 
In  most  of  the  cities  are  people  accustomed  to  European 
society,  with  a  taste  for  European  luxuries,  as  well  as  those 
of  simpler  habits  and  desires.  As  in  Colombia,  the  require- 
ments of  those  who  live  high  on  the  mountains  and  those 
on  the  llanos  are  very  different.  Attractive  inducements 
are  offered  to  immigrants  for  colonization. 

The  Indians  are  of  many  tribes,  some  quite  distinct  from 
the  others.  As  a  small  part  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula  is  in 
Venezuela,  there  are  Goajiros  like  those  in  Colombia.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  aborigines  became  mingled  with 
the  Spaniards ;  in  the  mountainous  sections  of  the  north  live 
few  Indians  of  pure  blood.  In  the  region  of  the  Delta  and 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  country  are  many  Indians  of 
at  least  16  tribes ;  some  are  dirty  and  stupid,  others  intelli- 
gent and  fierce ;  some  are  good  workers  and  boatmen,  others 
are  timid  and  agricultural.  The  Arawaks  are  gentle,  indus- 
trious, and  clean. 


VENEZUELA  57 


EDUCATION 

Venezuela's  percentage  of  illiteracy  has  been  high,  but  since 
1912  the  system  of  education  has  been  reorganized.  The 
National  Government  has  established  in  the  principal  cities 
primary  schools  with  six  grades.  Attendance  at  four  of  these 
since  1919  is  compulsory.  The  teaching  of  English  was  then 
ordered.  In  the  various  capitals  are  22  colegios  (high  schools), 
several  cities  having  also  Commercial  Schools,  Schools  of  Fine 
Arts,  and  of  Arts  and  Trades. 

There  are  Universities  in  Caracas  and  in  Merida,  with 
Schools  of  Law,  Medicine,  Philosophy  and  Letters,  Engineer- 
ing, Dentistry,  Pharmacy,  and  Theology. 

States  and  Municipalities  make  additional  provision. 

PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

The  Press  includes  official  gazettes  in  the  capitals  of  the 
States,  and  other  periodicals  devoted  to  scientific,  literary, 
and  other  special  subjects. 

Religion.  There  is  freedom  in  religion;  the  State,  how- 
ever, contributes  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Civil 
marriage  alone  is  legal;  the  religious  ceremony  generally 
follows,  although  in  the  rural  districts,  where  priests  are 
scarce  and  the  fees  high,  both  ceremonies  are  often  omitted. 
Divorce  is  now  permissible. 

Venezuela  belongs  to  the  Postal  Union  and  has  parcel 
post ;  but  service  to  the  interior  is  rather  primitive. 

The  Telegraph  service,  with  about  6000  miles  of  wire,  is 
cheap  and  called  efficient;  the  telephone  lines  have  double 
their  length  of  wire.  At  Caracas,  Maracaibo,  and  Maracay 
there  are  wireless  stations  communicating  with  Curasao  and 
so  with  the  outside  world.  There  is  also  cable  service. 

Money  is  in  gold,  silver,  and  nickel  coins,  and  there  are 
bank  notes  issued  by  four  banks.  The  bolivar  is  the  unit  of 


58  THE  NORTH  COAST 

money,  equal  to  the  French  franc;  19.3  cents.  A  dollar 
passes  for  5  bolivars.  American  money  circulates  near  the 
coast,  as  does  the  English  sovereign.  The  natives  frequently 
use  the  term  peso  for  which  they  employ  the  $  sign.  As  the 
peso  equals  but  4  bolivars  this  creates  confusion  and  mis- 
takes must  be  guarded  against. 

The  Metric  System  is  official,  compulsory,  and  in  general 
use. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
VENEZUELA:  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  configuration  of  Venezuela  is  simpler  than  that  of 
Colombia;  the  country  has  four  distinct  sections: 

First,  a  mountain  region  including  the  Venezuelan 
Andes,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  East  Cordillera  of  Colombia ; 
and  a  range  called  the  Maritime  Andes  extending  along  the 
coast. 

Second,  lying  east  and  south  of  the  mountains,  the  great 
plain  of  the  llanos  occupying  a  large  part  of  the  Orinoco 
Basin. 

Third,  the  Guiana  or  Guayana  Highlands  south  of  the 
Orinoco,  extending  to  the  eastern  and  southern  boundaries 
and  occupying  a  great  extent  of  unexplored  territory. 

Fourth,  the  coastal  plain  around  Lake  Maracaibo. 

FIRST  SECTION 

The  Andes  coming  in  from  Colombia  cross  the  northwestern 
portion  of  Venezuela  in  two  or  more  ranges,  separating  the 
great  Orinoco  Basin  from  the  lowlands  lying  between  this  chain 
and  that  part  of  the  Colombian  East  Cordillera  called  the 
Sierra  de  Perija.  A  number  of  the  mountains  are  above 
13,000  feet,  the  highest,  La  Columna,  is  16,522  feet.  Though 
none  of  the  mountains  are  volcanoes,  earthquakes  are  com- 
mon. The  general  height  of  the  range  decreases  on  the 
south  towards  Colombia,  and  north  towards  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  till  at  one  point  at  the  north,  near  where  the  city  of 
Barquisimeto  is  located  in  the  valley  between  the  two 
ranges,  the  Rio  Cojedes  goes  through  to  the  Orinoco  Basin. 

59 


60  THE  NORTH  COAST 

Beyond  the  Cojedes  River  the  Maritime  Andes  stretch  along 
the  coast  in  two  parallel  ranges,  the  high  valley  between 
them  being  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  the  country. 
The  peak  above  Caracas,  called  the  Silla  de  Caracas,  one  of 
the  highest  of  this  section,  has  an  altitude  of  8650  feet; 
Naiguata  passes  9000.  After  a  considerable  break  at  Cape 
Codera  the  mountains  continue  to  the  Gulf  of  Paria. 

The  western  branch  of  the  Venezuelan  Andes,  turning 
north,  continues  towards  the  coast  in  low  ranges  called  the 
Segovia  Highlands,  with  the  Maracaibo  district  on  the  west. 

SECOND  SECTION 

East  and  south  of  this  mountainous  country  is  the  vast 
region,  thinly  populated  and  not  well  known,  of  the  great 
Orinoco  Basin,  occupying  three  fourths  of  the  country;  first 
come  the  llanos,  followed  by  a  forested  district,  with 
hilly,  mountainous  country  beyond.  The  llanos,  covering 
87,000  square  miles  on  the  north  side  of  the  great  river, 
are  grassy  plains  broken  by  islands  of  trees.  Near  the  moun- 
tains north  and  west  are  extensive  forests.  The  llanos  are 
of  slightly  varying  altitude,  in  parts  rising  imperceptibly, 
but  often  by  terraces  or  banks  a  few  feet  high.  In  the  west- 
ern section  there  are  large  tracts  in  the  Portuguesa  Valley 
but  300  feet  above  the  sea;  in  other  places  the  land  rises 
to  650  feet,  and  to  a  still  greater  height  on  the  mesas 
which  form  the  watershed  between  the  Orinoco  and  the 
rivers  Unare  and  Aragua  flowing  into  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

THIRD  SECTION 

South  and  east  of  the  Orinoco  River  are  the  Guiana 
Highlands,  said  to  cover  200,000  square  miles,  for  the  most 
part  a  plateau  1000  feet  and  upwards  in  elevation,  from 
which  rise  several  mountain  chains  connected  by  lower  hills, 
the  Parime  Range  separating  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon 


VENEZUELA  61 

Basins.  A  few  peaks  rise  8000  feet;  the  highest  known  is 
Mt.  Roraima,  8500  feet,  at  the  southeast  corner,  where  the 
boundaries  of  British  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  Venezuela  come 
together. 

FOURTH  SECTION 

This  region,  much  smaller,  occupies  the  northwest  part 
of  the  Republic,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  coastal  plain. 
It  includes  the  alluvial  area  around  Lake  Maracaibo,  the 
Coro  and  the  Paraguana  lowlands,  with  open  sandy  hills 
extending  along  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela  to  the 
end  of  the  Paraguana  Peninsula,  and  some  islands  of  the 
same  character. 

The  Lake  district  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  Orinoco 
Delta,  with  many  rivers  coming  in  at  the  south,  and  with 
open  lagoons  and  swamps;  it  is  bordered  by  dense  forests 
often  inundated  by  rains.  East  and  west  towards  the  north 
between  the  swamps  are  higKer  lands  with  some  grassy 
plains.  At  the  west  is  the  Sierra  de  Perija  on  the  Colombian 
frontier. 

RIVERS  AND  LAKES 

Venezuela  is  said  to  have  72  large  and  more  or  less 
navigable  rivers,  of  which  the  Orinoco  is  the  chief.  Its 
length,  variously  stated,  may  be  1570  miles  and  the  area 
of  its  basin  370,000  square  miles. 

The  Orinoco,  rising  near  the  Brazilian  boundary,  first 
flows  northwest,  then  northerly  forming  the  boundary  line 
with  Colombia,  and  from  the  entrance  of  the  Meta  River, 
northeast  and  east  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  low  forested 
delta  covers  8500  square  miles.  Boca  de  Navios,  the  largest 
mouth,  is  20  miles  wide  with  a  depth  of  17  feet  at  the  bar. 
Among  the  400  or  more  tributaries  the  most  important  are 
the  Caroni,  the  Caura,  and  the  Ventuari,  draining  the  moun- 
tainous and  forested  section  at  the  south ;  and  the  Guaviare, 


62  THE  NORTH  COAST 

Vichada,  Meta,  and  Apure  coming  in  from  the  west,  the 
first  three  from  Colombia.  The  Casiquiare,  previously  men- 
tioned, connects  the  Orinoco  with  the  Rio  Negro. 

Among  other  rivers  of  importance  are  the  Catatumbo  and 
the  Escalante  flowing  into  Lake  Maracaibo  and  the  Tocuyo 
into  the  Caribbean. 

Among  the  205  lakes,  Maracaibo,  covering  8392  square 
miles,  is  obviously  the  largest  and  most  important.  Other 
lakes  are  Valencia,  Zulia,  Laguneta,  and  Camaguan,  but 
many  of  the  200  are  mere  shallow  lagoons  which  serve  as 
breeding  places  for  mosquitoes. 

CLIMATE 

As  might  be  expected,  the  climate  of  the  country  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  Colombia,  with  corresponding  variations  for 
altitude:  tropical  to  about  2000  feet;  above  that  to  7000 
temperate ;  still  higher,  cold,  with  mean  annual  temperatures 
ranging  from  60°  to  zero  or  less  on  the  high  mountains. 
The  hot  region,  tierra  cdiente,  includes  the  coastal  plains  with 
the  Maracaibo  district,  the  llanos,  a  large  part  of  the  Gua- 
yana  Highlands,  and  a  few  of  the  lower  mountain  valleys. 
The  islands  are  the  coolest,  the  llanos  the  warmest  part  of 
the  tropical  region ;  the  hottest  section  of  the  latter  is  south 
and  west,  the  farthest  from  the  sea.  Along  the  coast  the 
temperature  ranges  from  64°-68°  to  93°-95°.  The  temper- 
ate region  includes  the  most  thickly  settled  sections  at  mod- 
erate elevation,  while  the  cold  mountain  heights  have  com- 
paratively few  inhabitants.  On  the  llanos  the  dry  season 
is  from  November  to  May,  or  June,  the  rainy  following  to 
November.  The  coast  has  two  rainy  seasons,  December 
and  January,  and  April  to  July.  The  Orinoco  Delta  and 
parts  of  the  Guiana  section  are  the  most  unhealthful;  the 
lowest  death  rate,  rather  strangely,  is  in  the  cities  of  the 
llanos,  the  next  lowest  in  the  regions  of  the  Andes  and  the 
Caribbean  Mountains. 


CHAPTER  IX 

VENEZUELA:  CAPITAL,   STATES,   TERRITORIES, 
CHIEF  CITIES 

THE  CAPITAL 

Caracas,  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  founded  in  1567,  is 
a  very  attractive  city  with  a  delightful  climate.  Only  occa- 
sionally does  the  temperature  go  below  60°  or  above  80°. 
Eight  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  its  port,  La  Guaira,  from 
which  it  is  23  miles  by  rail,  the  city  is  at  an  altitude  of  3036 
feet  on  the  south  side  of  the  outer  Coast  Cordillera.  The 
city  is  in  the  usual  Spanish  American  style,  with  beautiful 
plazas  and  promenades.  Exceptionally,  the  streets,  which 
are  at  right  angles,  are  numbered  instead  of  named,  but  the 
old  names  are  in  general  use.  Notable  buildings  are  the 
Capitol  covering  more  than  two  acres,  the  Miraflores  Palace, 
the  Cathedral,  University,  National  Pantheon,  Masonic 
Temple,  called  the  best  in  South  America,  a  beautiful 
theatre,  etc.  A  fine  view  is  had  from  the  hill  Calvario,  200 
feet  above,  the  slopes  of  which  are  arranged  as  a  public 
garden.  Caracas  is  up  to  date  in  modern  conveniences, 
water  supply,  street  cars,  etc.,  and  has  a  good  and  cheap 
cab  service.  The  city  is  near  the  west  end  of  a  rich  valley 
12  miles  long  and  3  wide,  which  slopes  towards  the  south- 
east. The  Guaire  River  below  the  city  flows  into  the  Rio 
Tuy. 

INDIVIDUAL  STATES 

The  COASTAL  STATES  follow  with  the  Island  State,  and 
Lara,  which  is  neither  coast,  llano,  nor  mountain,  though 
having  some  hills.  The  coast  line  extends  over  1800  miles. 

63 


64  THE  NORTH  COAST 

Zulia,  the  large  State  (23,000  square  miles)  occupying 
the  northwest  corner  of  the  Republic,  has  Colombia  on  the 
west  and  northwest,  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela  northeast, 
Falcon,  Lara,  and  Trujillo  east,  and  Merida  with  a  little  of 
Tachira  south.  This  State,  of  which  Maracaibo  is  the  cap- 
ital, is  one  of  the  wealthiest  in  the  Republic,  though  still 
sparsely  inhabited.  The  Maracaibo  Plain,  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  important  section  occupying  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  State,  lies  between  the  two  great  branches  of  the 
East  Cordillera.  The  lake  itself  is  a  sheet  of  water  about 
150  miles  long  and  half  as  wide,  the  water  sweet  in  the 
southern  half  of  the  lake,  but  brackish  towards  the  north. 
The  precipitation  in  this  district  amounts  to  70  inches  an- 
nually. Thus  an  enormous  amount  of  fresh  water  from  the 
Cordillera  is  continually  entering  the  lake  through  its  vari- 
ous affluents;  of  these  the  Catatumbo  with  its  tributary 
Zulia.,  and  the  Escalante,  are  navigable  for  steamboats.  The 
lake  has  a  depth  of  30  feet  and  is  served  by  several  lines 
of  steamers  as  well  as  by  sailing  craft.  A  few  small  towns 
on  the  lake  receive  agricultural  products  from  their  vicinity ; 
along  the  shore  cacao  is  cultivated  with  great  profit.  There 
is  a  fine  goat  farming  district;  fishing  is  carried  on;  there 
are  many  settlements  of  Indians  inhabiting  huts  on  piles  in 
the  lake  in  the  ancient  fashion.  North  of  the  city,  Mara- 
caibo, are  solinos  or  salt  deposits,  from  which  several  thousand 
tons  are  taken  annually.  Southwest  of  Maracaibo,  a  peculiar 
tree  is  found  in  the  forest,  the  arbol  de  vaca,  or  polo  de  leche, 
the  sap  of  which,  though  slightly  thicker,  may  be  used  in 
every  way  as  cow's  milk.  In  the  forests  are  valuable  timber, 
useful  creepers,  and  trees  which  furnish  various  gums  or 
resins.  Around  the  lake  are  found  outcrops  of  coal,  also 
petroleum  and  asphalt. 

The  capital  city,  Maracaibo,  is  a  busy  place,  and  pros- 
perous. With  some  good  buildings,  and  other  ordinary 
requirements,  it  is  in  need  of  better  paving,  a  suitable  drain- 


c-.  f-J>    " 


VENEZUELA  65 

age  system,  and  a  good  water  supply,  in  order  to  lower  its 
high  death  rate  and  to  measure  up  to  its  favorable  location, 
although  this  may  be  called  hot. 

Falcon,  east  of  Zulia,  extends  along  the  coast  of  the  Gulf 
of  Venezuela  (also  called  Maracaibo)  past  the  Paraguana 
Peninsula,  which  it  includes,  and  around  to  the  east,  so  far 
that  the  next  coast  State,  Yaracuy,  is  on  the  south  together 
with  the  State  of  Lara  farther  west;  these  three  States  in- 
clude the  Segovian  Highlands ;  the  first  two,  coast  lands  also. 
This  section  is  the  oldest  part  of  Venezuela  except  for  the 
town  of  Cumana. 

An  immensely  profitable  industry  here  followed  is  the 
raising  of  goats,  which  feed  on  the  cactus  plains.  The  exten- 
sive coal  deposits  and  salinas  count  for  little  in  comparison. 
The  northern  part  of  the  State  is  rather  barren,  but  the  high- 
lands at  the  south  are  forest  clad,  with  fertile  valleys  raising 
a  variety  of  agricultural  products,  chiefly  for  home  consump- 
tion. There  is  one  considerable  river,  the  Tocuyo,  several  hun- 
dred miles  long,  which  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Lara,  flows 
north,  then  east  through  Yaracuy  and  Falcon  to  the  sea.  With 
many  affluents,  the  two  of  importance  are  the  Carora  and  the 
Baragua  on  the  left.  The  Rio  Tocuyo  comes  down  through  a 
long  valley,  while  many  short  rivers  rising  on  the  outer  range 
descend  rapidly  to  the  sea.  The  situation  is  excellent  for  the 
cultivation  of  cocuiza  and  other  aloes  from  which  sacks  and 
hammocks  are  now  being  made.  Other  industries  are  soap 
making  and  cigarettes;  in  some  sections  excellent  tobacco  is 
raised. 

Coro,  the  capital  of  Falcon,  the  second  oldest  town  in  the 
Republic,  contains  the  first  cathedral  in  the  new  world. 
Located  on  the  plains  at  the  base  of  the  Paraguana  Penin- 
sula, it  is  8  miles  from  its  seaport  La  Vela  and  200  miles 
west  of  Caracas. 

The  important  port  Tucacas  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  To- 
cuyo River. 


66  THE  NORTH  COAST 

The  Dutch  island,  Curasao,  lies  not  far  off  the  coast, 
with  which  it  has  close  connection ;  some  smuggling  is  said 
to  be  carried  on. 

Yaracuy,  a  small  State  with  a  very  short  coastal  strip, 
is  between  Falcon  on  the  north  and  Carabobo  southeast, 
with  Lara  southwest.  It  is  noted  for  its  copper  mines  at 
Aroa. 

Besides  the  capital,  San  Felipe,  where  a  cloth  factory 
has  lately  been  organized,  the  chief  towns  are  Nirgua,  popu- 
lation 3000,  at  the  south,  amid  fertile  plains  with  varied  agri- 
cultural products,  and  Yaritagua  20  miles  west,  where  good 
tobacco  is  raised,  as  well  as  sugar  and  coffee  which  grow 
everywhere. 

Lara,  an  interior  State,  borders  on  Falcon,  Yaracuy, 
Cojedas,  Portuguesa,  Trujillo,  finishing  with  Zulia  on  the 
west.  Besides  the  usual  agricultural  products,  there  is  fibre 
from  aloes,  employed  in  manufacturing  sacks,  hammocks, 
and  bridles,  for  which  Barquisimeto  is  noted.  The  fertile 
hills  and  slopes,  many  now  undeveloped,  the  virgin  forests 
of  valuable  timber,  with  areas  where  petroleum  is  indicated, 
will  receive  attention  now  that  better  transportation  is 
afforded. 

Barquisimeto,  the  capital,  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
90  miles  from  Puerto  Cabello,  is  the  most  important  city  of 
this  section,  a  centre  of  traffic  for  the  northern  Andes  region 
as  well  as  for  the  State  of  Lara. 

East  of  the  Segovia  Highlands  are  the  States  belonging 
to  the  Centra,  the  section  near  and  including  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict. These  are  Carabobo,  Aragua,  and  Miranda. 

Carabobo,  east  of  Yaracuy,  has  a  considerable  coast  line, 
with  Aragua  east,  and  Guarico  and  Cojedes  south.  Cara- 
bobo, like  the  states  following,  is  traversed  by  the  Maritime 
Andes,  having  fertile  valleys  between  the  two  ranges.  At 
the  south  are  grassy  plains  pasturing  large  herds  of  cattle. 
There  is  virgin  territory  with  forest  products  of  wild  rubber, 


VENEZUELA  67 

timber,  and  dye  woods;  to  the  east  the  country  is  more 
thickly  settled.  The  state  has  many  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral products,  with  marble  quarries  in  the  hills.  Near 
Guacara  200,000  plants  of  sisal  hemp  are  cultivated,  here 
harvested  in  three  years  (usually  in  four),  and  said  to  be 
superior  to  the  best  in  Mexico. 

Valencia,  the  capital,  is  a  pleasant  city,  well  situated  in 
a  beautiful  and  fertile  valley,  much  of  which  is  occupied  by 
Lake  Valencia  30  miles  long,  with  a  steamboat  service.  Hav- 
ing an  altitude  of  1600  feet  the  city  has  a  mild  climate  and 
enterprising  inhabitants.  The  state  contains  the  best  port 
in  the  Republic,  Puerto  Cabello,  linked  by  rail  with  the 
capital,  which  has  another  railway  connecting  it  with  Cara- 
cas. A  small  seaport,  Ocumare  de  la  Costa,  is  celebrated 
for  the  excellence  of  the  cacao  grown  in  the  vicinity. 

Aragua  stretches  from  the  coast  down  to  the  southeast 
between  Carabobo  and  Miranda,  with  Guarico  south.  In 
the  state  is  the  east  end  of  Lake  Valencia,  near  which  is 
the  important  town  of  Maracay,  population  6000,  in  the 
midst  of  rich  grazing  land  with  para  grass ;  a  splendid  farm- 
ing and  stock  raising  country,  its  dairies  produce  a  famous 
cream  cheese.  Goats,  and  excellent  swine  for  the  tropics 
are  also  raised.  15  miles  south  of  Maracay  stands  Villa  de 
Cura,  in  the  main  pass  across  the  inner  range  to  the  llanos. 
Here  are  many  big  ranches,  the  altitude  being  less  than 
2000  feet. 

La  Victoria,*  the  capital,  on  the  Aragua  River  and  also  on 
the  Valencia-Caracas  Railway,  is  19  miles  east  of  Maracay 
and  53  miles  from  Caracas.  It  is  a  prosperous  town  with 
small  factories  of  various  kinds. 

The  Federal  District  comprises  a  long  stretch  of  coast 
land  with  the  port,  La  Guaira,  as  well  as  a  fertile  valley 
with  fine  gardens  of  luscious  fruits,  and  coffee  and  sugar 
plantations.  Some  of  the  coffee  trees  are  said  to  yield  as 

*  Very  recently  Maracay  has  been  made  the  capital. 


68  THE  NORTH  COAST 

much  as  20  pounds  annually,  which  seems  a  large  story ;  it 
is  probably  two. 

Miranda,  south  of  the  Federal  District,  has  a  long  strip 
of  coast  land  farther  east.  Anzoategui  is  southeast,  Guarico 
south,  and  Aragua  west. 

Ocumare  del  Tuy,  the  capital,  about  south  of  Caracas, 
is  on  the  Rio  Tuy,  into  which  the  Guaire  flows  at  Santa 
Teresa.  The  broad  Tuy  valley,  here  and  easterly  towards 
the  coast,  is  full  of  sugar  cane  and  cacao.  To  Guapo  farther 
east  come  hides  and  other  animal  products  from  the  llanos 
as  well  as  rich  agricultural  produce  from  the  vicinity.  Rio 
Chico,  a  town  near  the  coast,  is  a  flourishing  manufacturing 
place. 

Anzoategui,  east  both  of  Miranda  and  Guarico,  is  a  very 
large  State  with  a  moderate  coast  line,  but  with  a  deep  and 
wider  interior  extending  down  to  the  Orinoco  and  Bolivar; 
the  coast  State  of  Sucre  and  a  long  stretch  of  Monagas  are 
on  the  east.  In  Anzoategui  the  llanos  come  up  to  the  sea, 
though  the  mountains  begin  again  in  Sucre. 

Barcelona,  the  capital,  is  quite  a  town  by  the  sea,  three 
miles  up  the  Neveri  River,  but  it  makes  use  of  the  port, 
Guanta,  12  miles  distant.  Coal  mines  are  near,  owned  and 
operated  by  Venezuelans,  of  which  fact  they  are  proud,  as 
many  of  the  industries  are  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  Cof- 
fee and  animal  products  are  exported. 

Sucre,  occupying  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Republic, 
is  the  last  State  on  the  Caribbean;  having  the  sea  west, 
north,  and  east,  and  the  States  of  Monagas  and  Anzoategui 
south.  Here  again  we  find  the  double  range  of  the  Carib- 
bean Hills  extending  across  the  State. 

Cumana,  the  capital,  dating  from  1513,  is  the  oldest 
European  settlement  on  the  continent ;  it  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  celebrated  patriot,  Antonio  Jose  de  Sucre.  The  city 
is  on  the  south  side  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of 
Cariaco,  an  arm  of  the  sea  50  miles  long  and  6-7  wide, 
which  extends  east  and  west,  separated  from  the  sea  by  the 


VENEZUELA  69 

narrow  peninsula,  Araya.  In  colonial  days  rich  and  pros- 
perous, the  town,  population  12,000,  has  now  less  than  half 
as  many  inhabitants;  twice  it  has  been  destroyed  by  earth- 
quakes. The  neighborhood  is  famous  for  its  fine  fruits, 
especially  grapes,  pineapples,  and  mangoes.  The  usual 
products  are  brought  from  the  interior  for  export.  The 
waters  of  the  eastern,  the  inner  end  of  the  gulf,  are  covered 
with  a  variety  of  wild  fowls,  caught  by  the  peasants  for 
their  plumage;  formerly  killed  by  drowning,  the  men  div- 
ing with  them  under  water.  Slaughter  of  birds  for  their 
egrets  is  now  prohibited,  other  methods  for  taking  the 
plumes  being  practicable.  On  the  west  end  of  the  peninsula 
are  extensive  salinas,  exporting  6000  tons  of  salt  yearly ;  on 
the  south  are  oil  springs. 

In  this  State  is  the  port  Carupano,  a  city  of  11,000,  half 
way  between  the  peninsulas,  Araya  and  Paria,  each  a  long 
point  of  land,  the  latter  together  with  the  Island  of  Trinidad 
forming  the  broad  Gulf  of  Paria.  Between  the  Paria  Pen- 
insula and  Trinidad,  celebrated  for  its  pitch  lake  100  acres 
in  area,  is  the  Bocas  del  Drago  (Dragon's  Mouths)  named  by 
Columbus,  through  which  ships  from  the  north  or  south  pass 
to  the  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad,  and  to  other  points  on  the 
Gulf,  though  for  some  the  way  is  nearer  through  the 
Serpent's  Mouth,  the  southern  entrance  to  the  Gulf.  Near 
the  extremity  of  the  finely  wooded,  mountainous  Peninsula 
of  Paria  is  Cristobal  Colon,  the  most  easterly  port  of  Vene- 
zuela, opposite  the  Orinoco  Delta.  Castro  attempted  to 
make  this  a  rival  of  the  Port  of  Spain,  but  the  roadstead 
is  so  poor  that  the  money  was  expended  to  little  purpose. 
In  Sucre  a  little  north  of  the  San  Juan  River  and  near 
Guanoco  is  the  great  Bermudez  Asphalt  Lake  ten  times 
the  size  of  the  better  known  Trinidad. 

Nueva  Esparta,  the  Island  State,  comprises  the  larger 
Margarita,  20  miles  off  shore,  the  smaller  Cubagua,  Coche 
half  way  between,  and  other  smaller  islands.  Once  famous 
for  its  pearl  fisheries  which  are  still  in  operation,  the  present 


70  THE  NORTH  COAST 

production  of  ordinary  fish,  and  from  Coche  of  salt  is  of 
equal  importance. 

La  Asuncion,  the  capital,  founded  in  1524,  is  in  a  valley 
at  the  east  end  of  Margarita,  with  a  port,  Pampatar,  at 
which  some  European  liners  call. 


LLANO  STATES 

Monagas,  south  of  Sucre  and  east  of  Anzoategui,  is  a 
large  State,  having  at  the  east  a  small  shore  on  the  Gulf 
of  Paria  with  the  Delta-Amacuro  Territory  below;  on  the 
south  is  the  State  of  Bolivar. 

Maturin,  the  capital,  population  16,000,  a  cheerful, 
healthful  place  with  the  remarkably  low  death  rate  of  12  per 
1000,  is  on  the  Rio  Guarapiche,  which  flows  into  the  Gulf. 
This,  the  most  eastern  state  of  the  llanos,  has  probably 
the  pleasantest  part  around  Maturin,  where  the  grassy  plain 
is  well  supplied  with  streams  having  deep  cut  channels  and 
well  wooded  banks.  The  climate  too  is  agreeable.  The 
State,  well  watered  and  wooded,  its  forests  near  the  north- 
ern hills,  is  chiefly  a  cattle  country ;  the  owners  live  mostly 
in  small  towns  or  villages  near  the  streams,  but  some  in 
single,  primitive  cottages  or  huts.  A  hammock  must  be 
carried  by  the  traveler,  though  food  may  be  procured. 

Anzodtegui,  a  coast  State  as  well  as  a  llano,  has  already 
been  described. 

Guarico,  a  very  large  State  west  of  Anzoategui  and 
north  of  Bolivar  and  Apure,  is  south  of  Miranda  and  Aragua, 
and  has  Cojedes  and  Zamora  west. 

Calabozo,  population  10,000,  the  capital  and  chief  city, 
125  miles  southwest  of  Caracas,  is  a  hot  place,  but  in  a  good 
grazing  country.  The  neighborhood  is  noted  for  electric 
eels. 

Cojedes,  a  smaller  State  west  of  Guarico,  borders  on 
Carabobo,  Yaracuy,  Lara,  Portuguesa,  and  Zamora. 


VENEZUELA  71 

San  Carlos,  the  capital,  is  said  to  be  less  flourishing  than 
formerly. 

Portuguesa,  southwest  of  Cojedes,  borders  also  on  Lara, 
Trujillo,  and  Zamora. 

Near  Guanare,  the  capital,  coffee  and  cacao  are  culti- 
vated as  well  as  the  cattle  industry. 

Zamora,  also  west  of  Guarico,  borders  north,  west,  and 
south  on  Cojedes,  Portuguesa,  the  mountain  States  of 
Merida  and  Tachira,  and  Apure. 

Barinas,  the  capital,  is  not  very  prosperous.  Formerly 
there  was  here  a  flourishing  tobacco  district. 

Apure,  farther  south  than  the  other  llano  States,  is  west 
of  Bolivar;  with  Guarico,  Cojedes,  Zamora,  on  the  north, 
and  a  bit  of  Tachira  at  the  west ;  it  has  Colombia  for  a  long 
distance  on  its  southern  boundary. 

San  Fernando,  the  capital,  with  a  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  91°,  and  Calabozo,  are  distinguished  as  the  two  hot- 
test places  in  the  country. 

THE  ANDINE  STATES 

These  have  been  called  attractive  and  interesting,  but 
lacking  good  means  of  locomotion  have  been  little  visited. 
Residents,  perhaps  returning  from  Europe,  have  been 
obliged  to  ride  several  days  on  muleback  to  reach  their 
homes.  Clean,  pleasant  towns,  fine  climate  and  scenery, 
mineral  wealth,  rich  forest  lands  on  the  upper  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  people  hospitable  and  energetic,  characterize  the 
three  States,  but  with  poor  facilities  for  travel  progress  was 
impossible.  Improvement  has  now  begun  in  this  direction, 
as  the  need  is  realized. 

Tachira,  the  most  southern  of  these  States,  has  Zulia 
and  Merida  north,  Zamora  and  Apure  east,  and  Colombia 
south  and  west. 

San  Cristobal,  the  capital,  at  an  altitude  of  3000  feet 
is  a  considerable  commercial  town.  With  roads  from  the 


72  THE  NORTH  COAST 

llanos,  by  which  cattle  are  brought,  and  others,  to  San  An- 
tonio on  the  Colombian  frontier,  to  Uraca,  terminus  of  the 
Tachira  Railway  from  Encontrados,  and  to  Merida,  it  is 
evidently  quite  a  centre  of  trade. 

Merida,  preeminently  the  Mountain  State,  borders  on 
Zulia,  Trujillo,  Zamora,  and  Tachira.  Here  are  elevated 
plains,  deep  valleys,  bleak  paramos  or  high  passes,  one 
reaching  14,500  feet,  and  loftier  snowclad  mountains;  the 
last  are  east  of  the  capital,  Merida. 

Merida,  situated  on  a  plateau  a  mile  above  the  sea,  has 
another  and  lower  range  of  mountains  on  the  west.  These 
mountain  States  have  the  variety  of  products  found  in  some 
States  of  Colombia:  tropical  and  temperate  fruits,  with 
coffee,  cacao,  cotton,  wheat,  wool,  etc.;  in  Merida,  gold 
and  silver  also. 

Trujillo,  with  lower  mountains,  borders  on  Zulia.,  Lara, 
Portuguesa,  Zamora,  and  Merida.  The  fertile  valleys  pro- 
duce the  finest  cacao,  there  are  large  sugar  estates;  wheat 
grows  higher,  cattle  and  goats  find  suitable  pasturage. 
Northwest  are  forests  largely  unexplored;  oil  springs  give 
promise  of  future  wealth. 

Trujillo,  the  capital,  is  a  busy  town  with  roads  in  several 
directions;  it  is  19  miles  from  the  railway  station  at  Mota- 
tan.  Other  towns  of  some  importance  are  Valera,  Bocono, 
and  Carache. 

The  GUAYANA  HIGHLANDS  have  a  single  State  and  one  ter- 
ritory. 

Bolivar,  a  great  State,  with  an  area  of  90,000  square 
miles,  twice  the  size  of  Pennsylvania,  has  the  Delta  on  the 
northeast ;  north  across  the  Orinoco,  it  has  a  bit  of  Monagas, 
a  long  stretch  of  Anzoategui,  and  a  smaller  extent  of 
Guarico,  to  the  point  where  the  Apure  enters  the  Orinoco 
and  the  latter  river  turns  east.  There,  west  of  the  Orinoco, 
is  the  State  of  Apure  down  to  the  entrance  of  the  Meta 
River,  below  which  Colombia  is  west  for  a  short  space. 


VENEZUELA  73 

Amazonas  is  south  of  the  west  part  of  Bolivar,  and  west 
of  the  southeast  part,  which  last  has  Brazil  on  the  south 
and  British  Guiana  east.  Bolivar,  largely  covered  with 
virgin  forest,  includes  a  vast  extent  of  unexplored  territory, 
besides  a  gold  region  bordering  on  British  Guiana. 

Ciudad  Bolivar,  the  capital,  perhaps  a  trifle  hotter  than 
the  coast  ports,  has  a  lower  death  rate.  Two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  during 
a  great  part  of  its  course  is  two  miles  wide  in  the  dry  season 
and  seven  in  the  wet,  the  city  is  located  at  a  point  where  the 
river  is  narrowed  to  a  mile.  In  consequence  of  this,  the 
water  is  liable  to  rise  50  feet  in  the  wet  season,  flooding  the 
lower  and  poorer  part  of  the  city. 

While  the  capital  is  the  official  port  of  entry,  there  is  a 
city  farther  down  stream  known  as  San  Felix  or  Puerto 
Tablas,  just  beyond  the  mouth  and  falls  of  the  Caroni 
River.  These  falls,  famed  since  first  seen  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  are  an  imposing  spectacle:  a  huge  mass  of  water 
descending  over  a  wall  of  black  granite  to  the  Orinoco 
below,  obviously  a  great  source  of  electricity  in  the  future. 
East  of  the  Caroni,  which  flows  from  the  southern  boundary, 
are  the  two  most  populous  districts  of  the  State.  This  is 
explained  by  gold.  Cart  roads,  by  which  merchandise  is 
carried  south  and  balata  and  hides  are  brought  north',  ex- 
telid  through  Upata,  capital  of  the  Piar  District,  to  Guasi- 
pati,  125  miles;  but  as  the  time  of  wheel  traffic  may  be 
ten  days  and  upwards,  the  traveler  usually  hires  a  mule 
and  arrives  in  a  few  days.  Guasipati  has  been  the  centre 
of  the  balata  industry,  but  as  the  local  operators  lazily 
cut  down  the  trees  instead  of  tapping  them,  the  main  pro- 
duction is  moving  south. 

The  town  of  El  Callao,  3  hours  ride  farther,  is  over  the 
famous  mine  of  that  name.  On  the  border  of  Guiana  60 
or  70  miles  south,  a  section  has  been  opened  accessible  by 
wat  only.  The  high  cost  of  transport,  and  the  scarcity, 
the  high  price,  and  the  poor  quality  of  labor,  greatly  inter- 


74  THE  NORTH  COAST 

fere  with  the  development  of  this  region.  With  wide  spread 
indications  of  gold,  there  is  little  reason  to  doubt  the  exist- 
ence here  of  vast  mineral  wealth. 

Besides  the  forest  clad  hills  of  this  section  there  are 
great  stretches  of  savannas  occupied  by  or  suitable  for  cattle 
ranches,  while  plantations  and  mills  for  the  production  of 
sugar  and  rum  are  also  found. 

Six  hours  east  of  Callao,  near  the  forests,  is  the  town 
Tumeremo,  a  centre  of  the  balata  industry,  where  the  whole- 
sale destruction  of  trees  still  prevailing  will  end  local  pro- 
duction and  the  town  as  well.  The  uplands  of  the  Caroni 
River  are  yet  unknown,  but  gold,  and  the  timber  and 
vegetable  products  of  the  forest  will  doubtless  one  day 
reward  the  hardy  explorer,  as  in  many  other  regions  of 
the  country. 

Above  Bolivar,  on  the  Orinoco,  there  is  at  one  point  a 
narrow  gorge  where  the  current  is  at  times  so  strong  as 
to  drive  back  river  steamers.  Farther  on,  the  Caura  River 
comes  in  from  the  south,  through  savannas  in  the  lower 
part  and  forests  higher  up.  On  a  western  tributary  of  the 
Caura,  the  Nichare,  there  is  said  to  be  plenty  of  good  rubber. 
130  miles  up  the  Caura  are  falls  or  rapids  descending  200 
feet,  a  splendid  source  of  power  for  future  saw  mills.  Two 
days  higher  are  more  rapids  in  a  narrow  gorge.  The  lower 
part  of  these  Orinoco  tributaries  are  infested  with  mosqui- 
toes, sand  flies,  etc.,  a  torment  to  explorers,  but  decreasing 
upstream.  Near  the  Cuchivero,  the  next  considerable  river, 
are  many  cattle  ranches;  its  upper  valley  is  rich  in  forest 
products. 

TERRITORIES 

The  Amazonas  Territory,  beginning  as  previously  stated 
somewhat  below  the  entrance  of  the  Meta  River  into  the 
Orinoco,  occupies  the  entire  region  south  to  Brazil.  It 
extends  farther  down  than  the  State  of  Bolivar,  having  that 
State  and  Brazil  on  the  east,  Colombia  west,  and  Bolivar 


VENEZUELA  75 

also  on  the  north.  Amazonas  with  101,000  square  miles 
is  larger  than  Bolivar  and  still  less  known,  explorers  hav- 
ing attempted  little  beyond  the  passage  of  a  few  streams. 

San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  the  capital,  is  a  village  where 
the  Atabapo  flows  into  the  Orinoco  and  that  river  begins 
to  be  the  boundary  with  Colombia;  the  Atabapo  being  the 
boundary  for  some  distance  farther  south.  The  Orinoco 
coming  from  the  southeast,  in  its  upper  reaches  is  entirely 
in  Amazonas.  About  the  same  point  as  the  Atabapo,  the 
Guaviare  enters  the  Orinoco  from  Colombia,  the  white 
waters  of  this  stream  contrasting  with  the  clear  black  (one 
writer  calls  it  red)  of  the  Atabapo,  which  latter,  it  will  be 
remembered,  often  indicates  absence  of  mosquitoes  with 
more  comfort  and  better  health. 

It  is  farther  north,  between  the  entrance  of  the  Colom- 
bian rivers  Vichada  and  Meta,  that  the  two  great  barriers 
to  navigation  on  the  Orinoco  occur,  the  Atures  Rapids, 
the  lower  and  the  largest  on  the  river,  and  50  miles  south 
the  Maipures.  In  each  of  these  sections  the  foaming  river 
dashes  among  rocks  and  wooded  islands  in  a  fashion  magnifi- 
cent to  behold  from  the  shore,  but  not  inviting  for  a  sail. 
With  the  water  power  apparent,  an  electric  railway  con- 
necting the  service  of  the  lower  Orinoco  with  that  above 
the  Maipures  Rapids  might  not  seem  too  difficult;  a  con- 
tract has  been  made  for  the  work  to  promote  the  develop- 
ment of  this  region. 

Amazonas  contains  a  mountainous  district  with  peaks 
7000-8000  feet  high,  though  the  greater  part  is  rather  low 
land.  There  are  tribes  of  Indians,  some  gentle  and  timid, 
others  so  savage  as  to  prevent  exploration,  especially  the 
Guaharibos,  also  called  White  Indians,  far  up  the  Orinoco 
beyond  Esmeralda.  The  territory  has  grassy  plains  suited 
to  cattle  raising,  but  more  forest  land  with  rubber  trees  of 
the  first  class,  a  few  of  which  in  small  sections  have  been 
tapped ;  there  are  natural  cacao  patches.  Mineral  wealth  is 
indicated  by  the  reports  and  specimens  from  the  Indians. 


76  THE  NORTH  COAST 

Forty  miles  above  the  confluence  of  the  Atabapo  and  the 
Guaviare,  the  great  Ventuari  tributary,  300  miles  long, 
enters  the  Orinoco  from  the  east.  150  miles  higher  the 
famed  Casiquiare  or  Brazo  leaves  the  Orinoco  to  join  the 
Rio  Negro  and  Amazon.  An  old  mission  station,  Esmeralda, 
20  miles  beyond,  on  the  Orinoco,  is  the  last  permanent 
settlement  of  the  region.  The  watershed,  here  but  a  slight 
bank  along  the  left  of  the  river,  is  entirely  lacking  where  the 
Casiquiare  leaves  it,  taking  a  little  of  the  water.  Farther 
on  the  diverging  stream  unites  with  the  Guiania  River  in 
Colombia  to  form  the  Negro,  the  chief  northern  tributary 
of  the  Amazon. 

The  Delta  Amacuro  Territory  embraces  the  delta  of  the 
Orinoco,  with  some  mountainous  country  at  the  south  be- 
fore reaching  the  boundary  of  British  Guiana,  which  with 
the  State  of  Bolivar  is  on  the  south;  Monagas  is  on  the 
west.  The  coast  line  runs  northwest  southeast  from  the 
Gulf  of  Paria,  of  which  it  forms  the  southern  limit,  to 
Guiana;  thus  nearly  the  whole  coast  faces  the  Atlantic. 
Only  one  settlement  is  found  on  the  swampy  shore,  Pedef- 
nales  on  the  Gulf,  a  gloomy  spot  with  unprepossessing  in- 
habitants. Up  the  Cano  Pedernales  there  is  beautiful  foliage 
in  the  inundated  forest,  with  higher  lands  back,  where  live 
primitive  wild  Indians;  farther  on  is  unflooded  forest,  or 
open  savannas  with  rich  grass  for  thousands  of  cattle;  on 
the  banks  a  few  scattered  houses.  One  fine  cacao  ranch 
is  passed  before  reaching  Tucupita,  the  capital,  a  dismal 
place,  but  with  some  signs  of  commercial  life.  Soon  after, 
the  mountains  of  Guayana  are  visible,  and  presently  the 
town  of  Barrancas  in  Monagas,  the  lowest  town  and  port  on 
the  Orinoco  proper. 


CHAPTER  X 
VENEZUELA:  PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

La  Guaira,  the  chief  port  of  the  Centra,  and  the  best 
known  of  Venezuela,  is  rivaled  by  Puerto  Cabello,  which 
has  a  better  natural  harbor.  La  Guaira,  population  18,000 
including  its  suburbs,  as  the  port  of  the  capital,  Caracas, 
attracts  more  travelers  and  at  present  more  trade,  much 
of  it  coming  from  or  going  to  other  parts  of  the  country. 
The  harbor,  a  rather  open  roadstead,  was  improved  at 
great  expense  by  port  works.  Though  these  facilitate  the 
increasing  traffic,  ships  at  times  are  still  exposed  to  heavy 
swells.  The  town  is  hot  and  unhealthful  with  a  mean  tem- 
perature of  84.5°,  but  it  has  good  rail  connection  with  its 
pleasant  suburbs,  cooler  and  more  sanitary.  The  port  has 
good  piers,  vessels  lying  alongside.  The  depth  of  water  is 
28-30  feet. 

Puerto  Cabello,  65  miles  west,  in  the  State  of  Carabobo, 
population  20,000,  is  said  to  have  the  best  harbor,  its  depth 
28  feet,  on  the  North  Coast  of  South  America.  With  a 
slightly  lower  temperature  than  La  Guaira,  it  has  a  higher 
death  rate.  To  this  port  comes  most  of  the  produce  of 
its  own  State,  of  Yaracuy,  of  the  Llano  States  Cojedes  and 
Portuguesa,  and  some  from  the  Andes  region.  The  enter- 
prise of  the  Venezuela  Meat  Syndicate,  with  new  build- 
ings here,  promotes  stock  farming  and  the  traffic  of  the 
port.  A  floating  dock  receives  vessels  of  2000  tons ;  a  new 
one  will  accommodate  ships  of  4000  tons. 

Carupano,  far  to  the  east  of  La  Guaira,  is  the  only 
other  port  of  importance  which  is  visited  by  large  ocean 

77 


78  THE  NORTH  COAST 

steamers.  Although  as  warm  as  Puerto  Cabello,  it  has  a 
much  more  healthful  climate.  With  no  real  harbor,  merely 
an  open  roadstead,  serving  the  State  of  Sucre,  it  is  a  port 
of  call  for  several  lines  of  steamers.  The  cargo  must  be 
transported  in  lighters. 

Ciudad  Bolivar,  though  far  up  the  Orinoco  River,  as 
the  official  port  of  entry  for  half  the  country,  serves  an 
extensive  region.  It  communicates  with  the  outside  world 
by  weekly  steamers  of  shallow  draught  to  the  Port  of 
Spain,  as  also  by  coasting  vessels.  The  steamers  returning 
cross  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  follow  up  the  Cano  Macareo  to  the 
Orinoco,  and  up  that  river  to  Bolivar. 

Maracaibo,  the  fifth  port  with  foreign  trade,  though 
called  a  seaport  is  not  exactly  on  the  sea;  being  located 
on  the  west  shore  of  a  broad  channel  6-12  miles  wide  and 
30  long  which  connects  Lake  Maracaibo  with  the  Gulf  of 
Venezuela.  The  city  has  fine  wharves  on  a  beautiful  bay, 
a  smooth  roadstead  with  water  30  feet  deep ;  but  unfortun- 
ately the  sand  bar  at  the  entrance  of  the  channel  confines 
the  passage  to  ships  drawing  only  n  feet,  with  conditions 
growing  worse.  As  the  city  is  now  the  second  port  of  the 
country  with  the  largest  export  trade  including  some  from 
Colombia,  it  has  been  proposed  either  to  dredge  one  o£  the 
entrance  channels,  or  to  make  use  of  the  fine  natural  harbor 
of  Cojoro  on  the  Gulf,  capable  of  accommodating  the  larg- 
est steamers,  and  to  connect  this  port  with  Maracaibo  by 
a  railway  about  100  miles  long.  At  present  the  foreign 
trade  is  carried  on  by  national,  Dutch,  and  Spanish  steamers, 
and  by  American  boats  of  the  Red  D  Line.  Freight  not 
destined  for  the  United  States  is  largely  carried  to  the 
Dutch  Island  Curagao,  where  transfer  is  made  to  ships  of 
other  lines.  Sailing  vessels  also  carry  much  produce. 

These  primary  ports,  except  Carupano,  all  have  docks 
where  ships  come  alongside.  A  new  freight  and  passenger 
service  from  New  Orleans  to  Venezuelan  ports  has  been 
installed  by  the  W.  R.  Grace  Company. 


VENEZUELA  79 

A  number  of  smaller  ports  are  served  generally  by  smaller 
craft,  steam  or  sailing  vessels,  which  transfer  freight  to  the 
primary  ports  for  ocean  traffic.  Some  of  these  are:  La 
Vela  (56  miles  from  Curasao),  the  port  of  Coro,  capital 
of  Falcon;  Tucacas,  in  the  same  State,  important  as  serv- 
ing the  copper  mines  of  Aroa ;  Carenero,  in  Miranda,  east  of 
Caracas;  Quanta,  long  the  port  of  Barcelona  and  neighbor- 
ing coal  mines;  Cumana  in  Sucre,  a  mile  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Manzanares  River;  and  Pampatar  on  Margarita 
Island.  At  Turiamo,  a  natural  harbor  between  La  Guaira 
and  Puerto  Cabello,  a  public  bonded  warehouse  is  to  be 
erected,  and  connection  will  be  made  with  the  Grand  Central 
Railway.  At  Ocumare  de  la  Costa  port  and  harbor  works 
are  to  be  constructed  by  the  Government  and  a  railway  con- 
necting the  port  with  Maracay,  43  miles  distant. 


INLAND  TRANSPORTATION 

The  railway  development  of  Venezuela  is  small,  the 
longest  line  being  in  miles  in  length,  and  the  total  mileage 
about  650.  There  is  therefore  a  little  over  a  foot  of  rail- 
way for  each  inhabitant.  Most  of  the  lines  are  from  a 
port  to  the  interior ;  all  are  of  narrow  gauge,  but  of  varying 
widths.  Most  of  the  existing  lines  were  laid,  1881-1893. 
Unfavorable  legislation  prevented  further  construction  until 
after  a  change  in  the  laws ;  later  the  Great  War  interfered. 
Rates  are  very  high  on  all  the  railways,  yet  most  of  them 
are  unprofitable. 

The  La  Guaira-Caracas  Railway  is  exceptional,  having 
a  large  amount  of  traffic,  more  of  import  freight  than  of 
export.  The  British-built  Railway  climbs  to  a  height  of 
over  3000  feet  to  surmount  the  ridge  on  the  south  side  of 
which  is  Caracas,  a  two  hours'  ride,  one  of  intense  interest 
and  beauty.  While  the  tracks  of  the  Harbor  Corporation 
are  of  the  same  gauge  as  the  railway,  these  cars  do  not  go 


80  THE  NORTH  COAST 

to  the  steamer's  side,  so  that  much  freight  is  unnecessarily 
handled  twice.  Railways  now  electrified  serve  the  suburbs 
on  either  side. 

Caracas  is  served  by  two  other  railways,  but  these  are 
of  different  gauge. 

The  Central  Railway,  the  station  of  which  is  two  miles 
across  the  city,  runs  from  Caracas  east  and  south  towards 
Ocumare  on  the  Tuy  River;  46  miles  to  San  Francisco  de 
Yare  are  completed;  the  remaining  15  are  in  construction. 
Both  of  these  roads  were  difficult  to  build,  the  many  bridges, 
tunnels,  and  viaducts  needed  making  them  very  expensive. 
The  maximum  grade  is  about  4  per  cent.  The  latter  road 
follows  down  the  Guaire  valley,  passing  Petare,  a  town  of 
Miranda,  only  seven  miles  from  Caracas. 

If  the  River  Tuy  were  followed  down  to  the  east  and 
north,  one  would  come  to  the  Carenero  Railway  which 
connects  the  small  port  of  that  name  with  the  towns, 
Higuerote,  Rio  Chico,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  place, 
and  Guapo,  34  miles,  on  the  way  to  the  llanos  of  Guarico. 
From  the  llanos  come  hides  and  other  animal  products  to 
the  port,  and  from  the  vicinity  rich  agricultural  products 
including  cacao.  The  Railway  runs  a  steamship  line  to 
La  Guaira;  small  schooners  also  serve. 

The  Great  Railway  of  Venezuela,  built  by  the  Germans, 
is  the  other  line  from  Caracas,  the  longest  and  most  costly  in 
the  country.  It  runs  west  to  Valencia,  the  second  city  of 
the  Republic.  Though  as  a  whole  less  difficult  than  some 
others,  there  is  one  stretch  of  8  per  cent  grade  requiring 
cog  wheels  and  there  are  many  loops  and  zigzags.  The 
road  traverses  a  fine  farming  and  cattle  country  and  passes 
through  the  important  towns  of  Victoria  and  Maracay  in 
Aragua,  previously  mentioned.  212  bridges  and  86  tunnels 
in  in  miles  may  seem  many  for  an  easier  road.  A  branch 
of  2.Y-2  miles  runs  to  the  village  of  Guigiie. 

The  Puerto  Cabello-Valencia  Railway,  33  miles  long, 
connects  Valencia  directly  with  the  sea,  passing  over  the 


VENEZUELA  81 

north  ridge  of  the  mountains  at  a  height  of  2000  feet. 
Though  the  construction  of  the  road  as  a  whole  was  less 
difficult  than  that  of  the  La  Guaira-Caracas,  to  shorten  it, 
a  section  2.4  miles  long  has  a  cog  rail  with  a  maximum 
grade  of  8  per  cent. 

The  Bolivar  Railway,  farther  west,  the  first  in  Venezuela, 
was  built  for  the  especial  benefit  of  the  copper  mines  of  the 
State  of  Yaracuy.  It  runs  from  the  port  of  Tucacas,  north- 
west of  Puerto  Cabello,  to  Barquisimeto,  100  miles.  The 
part  built  first  is  now  a  branch  of  the  road,  leading  from 
La  Hacha  to  the  rich  copper  mines  at  Aroa  eight  miles 
distant.  Both  railway  and  mines  are  British  properties,  the 
latter  bringing  in  handsome  returns.  A  company  steamer 
carries  freight  to  and  from  Puerto  Cabello,  as  Tucacas  has 
no  custom  house.  Another  branch  of  the  railway,  from 
Palma  Sola  to  the  capital  of  Yaracuy,  San  Felipe,  25  miles, 
was  opened  in  1916.  In  this  State  are  other  copper  mines 
unworked,  and  fertile  hills  and  plains  uncultivated.  The 
Rio  Tocuyo  is  navigable  as  far  as  Siquisique  for  steam- 
boats, but  traffic  is  not  sufficient  to  make  their  operation 
profitable. 

The  La  Vela-Coro  Railway,  8^2  miles  long,  connects 
Coro  with  its  port. 

In  the  State  of  Zulia  are  three  more  railways: 

The  La  Ceiba,  50  miles  long,  runs  from  that  port  on 
the  Lake  toward  the  city  of  Trujillo  as  far  as  Motatan. 

The  Great  Railway  of  Tachira,  75  miles  long,  goes  from 
Encontrados  on  the  Catatumbo  River  west  of  the  Lake, 
south  towards  the  capital  of  Tachira,  now  reaching  San 
Felix  or  a  little  beyond.  It  serves  the  Colombian  Depart- 
ment of  Santander  as  well  as  Tachira.  The  many  transfers 
of  freight  are  a  great  disadvantage,  while  freshets  on  the 
Catatumbo  threaten  to  destroy  Encontrados. 

The  Santa  Barbara-El  Vigia  Railway,  37  miles  long,  is 
designed  to  serve  the  city  of  Merida.  Santa  Barbara  is  on 
the  Escalante  River;  and  the  road  towards  Merida,  which 


82  THE  NORTH  COAST 

crosses  several  streams,  has  had  much  trouble  from  the 
Chama  River  from  inundations. 

The  Guanta-Naricual  Railway,  far  to  the  east,  leads  from 
the  port  of  Quanta  past  the  city  of  Barcelona,  capital  of 
Anzoategui,  to  the  coal  mines  of  Naricual.  Quanta,  though 
not  a  primary  port,  has  an  excellent  natural  harbor,  but 
the  opening  to  navigation  in  1915  of  the  Neveri  River  on 
which  Barcelona  is  situated  has  greatly  diminished  the  traf- 
fic of  Quanta. 

A  few  private  railways  exist,  constructed  for  business 
purposes : 

A  railway  27  miles  long  of  the  Asphalt  Mines  of  Inciarte 
in  Zulia. 

A  railway  of  10  miles  of  the  Asphalt  Mines  of  Guanoco, 
Sucre. 

A  two  mile  railway  of  Asphalt  Mines  of  Guanipa, 
Monagas. 

A  railway  10  miles  from  San  Lorenzo,  Zulia,  to  oil  wells 
of  the  Caribbean  Petroleum  Company. 

A  railway  19  miles  from  Bobures,  Zulia.,  to  a  sugar 
plantation. 

A  railway  19  miles  from  Rio  Limon,  Zulia,  to  coal  fields 
40  miles  west  of  Maracaibo,  leased  by  the  Caribbean  Coal 
Company. 

Considerable  railway  construction  is  talked  of,  but  the 
only  immediate  probability  is  of  a  road  from  the  port  of 
Castilletes  on  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela  to  a  coal  property  near 
Lake  Maracaibo,  belonging  to  the  Caribbean  Coal  Company. 
A  port  is  to  be  constructed  admitting  vessels  of  35  feet 
draft,  the  present  depth  being  16  feet.  The  railway  93  miles 
long  of  standard  gauge  is  to  have  a  one  way  capacity  of 
10,000  tons  daily,  with  maximum  freight  charges  lower  than 
any  at  this  time  on  existing  lines.  As  no  port  charges  of 
any  kind  are  to  be  collected,  if  the  construction  and  mining 
development  are  carried  out  as  expected,  it  will  be  a  most 
important  industrial  development  for  Venezuela  which  may 


VENEZUELA  83 

affect  the  trade  of  Curagao  and  Maracaibo.  As  this  port 
will  be  but  595  miles  from  Colon,  and  as  the  coal  is  said 
to  be  of  the  best  quality,  it  is  important  for  ships  making 
use  of  the  Canal. 

The  Venezuelan  Government  now  gives  generous  con- 
cessions to  foreign  companies  or  individuals,  undertaking 
railway  construction. 


OTHER  METHODS  OF  COMMUNICATION 

Roads.  Aside  from  the  railways,  a  meagre  supply  for  a 
country  of  its  size,  other  means  of  transportation  are  inade- 
quate. Street  railways  exist  in  the  chief  cities :  Caracas, 
Valencia,  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello,  Maracaibo,  Bolivar, 
Barquisimeto,  Carupano,  and  Cumana.  The  great  water  power 
available  for  electric  traction  and  for  other  purposes  should 
be  largely  developed  in  future.  Some  automobile  and  cart 
roads  exist,  1636  miles  at  the  end  of  1919,  but  to  a  large 
extent  transportation  is  over  bridle  paths  or  caminos. 

An  excellent  automobile  road  leads  from  La  Guaira  to 
Caracas.  From  the  capital  such  roads  branch  in  several 
directions.  One  goes  east  to  Guatire,  two  south  to  Ocumare 
del  Tuy,  one  of  these  with  a  branch  south  from  Cua.  A  good 
road  leads  through  Maracay  to  Valencia;  from  midway,  a 
branch  leads  south  through  Villa  de  Cura  to  Ortiz  in 
Guarico,  from  which  point  construction  is  being  continued 
to  Calabozo,  the  capital,  and  thence  to  San  Fernando,  capital 
of  Apure.  Another  road  leads  from  Ocumare  de  la  Costa 
to  Maracay. 

From  Puerto  Cabello  one  may  go  by  auto  to  Valencia 
and  to  Guigiie,  south  of  the  lake;  also  from  the  port  to 
San  Felipe  and  Barquisimeto. 

From  the  city  of  Maracaibo  a  road  goes  north  to  San 
Rafael  near  the  mouth  of  the  Channel,  and  one  southwest 


84  THE  NORTH  COAST 

to  Perija,  west  of  the  centre  of  the  Lake,  passing  two 
petroleum  sites. 

From  the  terminus  of  the  Tachira  Railway,  Uraca,  a 
road  leads  to  San  Cristobal,  and  one  to  Cucuta  in  Colombia. 
From  Motatan  a  good  wagon  road  goes  to  Trujillo.  Pack 
animals  serve  from  El  Vigia  to  Merida.  In  the  east  there 
is  the  long  road  from  San  Felix  on  the  Orinoco  to  El  Callao 
and  Tumeremo. 

Other  roads  are  in  construction  or  planned  for  the  im- 
mediate future.  From  Coro  a  road  is  to  go  south  and 
southwest  to  Trujillo  and  beyond,  and  one  near  the  coast 
to  Altagracia  on  the  Maracaibo  Channel,  northeast  of  that 
city.  Several  roads  will  branch  from  Barquisimeto  and 
from  Valencia,  the  most  important,  one  from  Valencia 
southwest  to  San  Carlos,  Guanare,  Barinas,  and  San  Cris- 
tobal. Shorter  local  roads  will  serve  Cumana  and  Carupano. 

Considerable  activity  has  recently  been  manifested  in 
road  building;  and  bridges,  long  sadly  lacking  over  moun- 
tain torrents,  have  been  constructed.  Some  deeper  streams 
have  ferries. 

River  communication  and  lake  service  are  important  in 
many  sections.  Of  Venezuela's  nearly  500  rivers,  74  are  said 
to  be  navigable  a  distance  of  6000  miles,  4000  in  the  Orinoco 
Basin.  Especially  in  Bolivar  and  Amazonas  communication 
is  by  river,  but  in  other  States  also  it  is  important.  The 
Orinoco  is  a  natural  highway  600  miles  to  Pericos  and  the 
Atures  Rapids.  There  is  regular  weekly  service  to  San 
Fernando  de  Apure.  There  is  traffic  along  the  Apure, 
Arauca,  and  Meta  Rivers,  the  last  two  in  Colombia;  but 
the  affluents  on  the  north  side  of  the  Orinoco  are  too  vari- 
able in  depth  to  permit  regular  service,  and  those  on  the 
south  are  too  broken  by  cataracts. 

On  Maracaibo  Lake  are  plenty  of  craft,  both  steam  and 
sailing  vessels,  two  main  lines  of  the  former  running  from 
Maracaibo,  one  along  the  west  side  of  the  Lake  and  up  the 
Catatumbo  to  Encontrados  and  the  Tachira  Railway,  the 


VENEZUELA  85 

other  to  La  Ceiba  and  the  Motatan  Railway  going  towards 
Trujillo  on  the  east  side;  a  smaller  boat  runs  around  the 
south  side  of  the  Lake  and  up  the  Escalante  to  Santa 
Barbara.  From  Encontrados  a  line  of  small  steamers  runs 
up  the  Zulia  to  Villamizar. 


CHAPTER  XI 
VENEZUELA:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

AGRICULTURE 

The  Agricultural  Zone,  according  to  late  statistics, 
covers  the  greater  part  of  that  section  of  the  Republic  which 
lies  between  the  sea  and  the  Orinoco  Plains :  about  100,000 
square  miles,  only  one  third  of  which  is  tilled.  The  sec- 
tion has  great  fertility  of  soil,  and  with  its  varying  elevation  and 
climate  it  is  adapted  to  the  production  of  everything  needful 
for  man  or  beast.  Twenty  per  cent  of  the  population 
is  employed  in  agricultural  pursuits.  With  the  introduction 
of  new  methods  and  modern  machinery  a  vast  development 
and  great  wealth  should  ensue.  At  present  the  chief  prod- 
ucts are  coffee,  cacao,  and  sugar,  with  tobacco,  cotton,  corn, 
wheat,  vanilla,  etc.,  and  a  great  variety  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. 

Coffee,  as  in  Colombia,  is  called  a  product  of  the  tem- 
perate clime,  growing  at  an  altitude  of  1500-6500  feet  but 
best  at  3000.  A  tree  is  said  to  live  50  years  and  to  produce 
a  quarter  to  a  half  a  pound  annually.  About  $16,000,000 
are  invested  in  the  industry;  there  are  approximately  260,- 
000,000  trees.  Venezuela  claims  to  be  second  in  coffee 
production,  exporting  over  100,000,000  pounds  in  1919. 

Cacao  needs  a  warmer  climate  than  coffee,  and  moist 
air;  hence  it  grows  well  on  slopes  near  the  sea  having  a 
temperature  of  80°.  But  it  is  found  and  cultivated  in  other 
parts,  growing  wild  in  Guayana  and  near  the  upper  Orinoco. 
Where  cultivated,  80  trees  to  the  acre  are  approved,  of 
course  at  first  shaded.  After  five  years  two  crops  a  year, 
in  June  and  December,  are  expected.  Trees  average  a  life 

86 


VENEZUELA  87 

of  40  years,  with  an  annual  production  of  220-250  pounds 
an  acre.  About  16  seeds  are  enclosed  in  a  long  red  and 
yellow  pod,  which  turns  purple  when  ripe.  After  being 
gathered,  they  are  heaped  in  piles  on  the  ground,  left  a 
few  days  to  ferment  and  burst,  when  the  seeds  are  shelled, 
washed,  and  housed.  There  are  two  grades  here,  the  criollo 
or  native,  of  very  high  grade,  growing  in  valleys  near  the 
sea,  and  the  trinitario,  imported  from  Trinidad.  The  Chuao 
Plantation  is  said  to  produce  cacao  of  a  particularly  sweet 
and  fine  quality,  which  is  generally  exported  to  France. 
Over  $12,000,000  are  invested  in  the  business.  In  production 
Venezuela  is  third.  There  are  more  than  5000  plantations. 

Sugar.  The  sugar  industry  is  rapidly  developing.  New 
mills  with  modern  machinery  have  been  erected  and  more 
acres  are  planted.  A  mill  at  Maracay  can  crush  nearly 
1800  tons  of  cane  daily,  with  an  output  of  sugar  of  80  tons. 
Four  species  of  cane  are  cultivated,  the  indigenous,  the 
criolla,  most  largely,  as  being  sweeter  and  otherwise  giving 
good  results.  The  reaping  is  arranged  so  that  the  grind- 
ing may  be  constant  throughout  the  year.  The  canes  near 
Lake  Valencia  are  longer  and  thicker,  with  more  juice  but 
less  sweetness.  The  best  quality  of  sugar  is  produced  near 
Guatire,  three  hours  by  motor  from  Caracas ;  the  largest  quan- 
tity on  two  plantations  near  Lake  Maracaibo,  each  having  a 
daily  output  of  800  tons. 

There  are  four  varieties  of  products:  sugar,  brown  sugar, 
alcohol,  and  rum,  all  of  which  many  large  plantations  are 
equipped  to  produce.  Of  the  two  near  Bobures,  Zulia, 
one  has  5000  acres  under  cultivation,  the  other  nearly  as 
much.  The  total  capital  invested  is  above  $10,000,000.  An 
increasing  foreign  market  is  expected. 

Tobacco  is  grown  in  many  sections,  thriving  in  humid 
fertile  soil.  It  develops  in  six  months,  but  requires  great 
care.  There  is  much  variety  in  the  quality,  some  being 
strong  and  heavy,  some  delicate  with  fine  flavor  and  aroma. 
A  little  is  exported  to  Havana  and  there  mixed  for  making 


88  THE  NORTH  COAST 

cigarettes.  The  annual  production,  above  3000  tons,  might 
be  increased. 

Cotton  grows  wild  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  is 
cultivated  in  a  number  of  States.  The  average  crop  is 
about  4,000,000  pounds  of  seeded  cotton,  half  of  which  is 
raised  in  Aragua  and  Carabobo.  Zulia  produces  the  best 
cotton,  with  longer  fibre,  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  crop.  Lara, 
Portuguesa,  and  the  States  of  the  East  supply  the  rest. 
The  cotton  is  sown  in  June  or  July  and  harvested  in  the 
dry  season,  December  to  March.  It  is  freshly  planted  every 
year  in  connection  with  vegetables,  the  receipts  from  which 
cover  the  cost  except  for  that  of  gathering;  so  that  the 
industry  furnishes  a  desirable  opportunity  for  immigrants 
with  small  or  no  capital.  About  $200,000  are  invested  in 
cotton  growing. 

Coconuts  are  indigenous  in  Venezuela ;  and  in  the  regions 
of  Zulia,  Carabobo,  Bolivar,  Barcelona,  and  Cumana,  there 
are  broad  plantations.  Over  $1,000,000  is  invested. 

Wheat  is  grown  to  some  extent  and  fine  crops  are  pro- 
duced; but  much  more  land  is  available  in  the  high  table- 
lands and  valleys  of  Western  Venezuela  so  that  home  con- 
sumption could  easily  be  supplied.  With  improved  methods, 
machinery,  etc.,  it  might  even  become  a  staple  export. 

Corn  is  cultivated  everywhere  in  all  kinds  of  soil  from 
sea  level  up  to  9000  feet,  but  it  grows  best  between  1500 
and  3000  feet.  About  75,000  acres  are  devoted  to  its  pro- 
duction; 150,000  tons  are  raised,  some  being  exported.  It  is 
the  real  bread  plant  of  the  country  especially  in  the  interior. 

Beans  in  large  variety  are  produced,  black  beans  being 
greatly  in  demand  and  some  exported. 

Indigo  was  once  cultivated  and  in  1802  was  exported  to 
the  value  of  $2,500,000,  but  its  production  was  abandoned 
owing  to  higher  returns  from  coffee. 

Vanilla  grows  well  in  the  rich  lands  of  Falcon,  Lara, 
Bolivar,  Zamora,  and  Anzoategui.  Its  cultivation  might  be 
developed. 


VENEZUELA 


FORESTRY 

The  forest  resources  are  inexhaustible  but  hardly 
touched,  the  zone  comprising  about  half  of  Venezuela  of 
which  98  per  cent  is  virgin  territory.  Nearly  three-quarters 
of  this  area  is  public  land,  over  100,000  square  miles.  With 
more  capital  and  labor,  better  means  of  transport,  and 
modern  implements  and  machinery  a  great  development 
will  result.  The  chief  forest  products  are  rubber,  balata, 
tonka  beans,  divi-divi,  and  various  medicinal  plants.  There 
are  many  dyeing  and  tanning  plants,  and  gums  and  resins 
abound.  In  the  forests  a  great  amount  of  timber  exists 
including  the  finest  varieties ;  but  as  usual  these  are  scat- 
tered, and  with  present  facilities,  difficult  to  get  out  with  a 
profit.  Of  the  600  species  of  wood  5-10  per  cent  are  market- 
able. 145  varieties  used  for  ornamental  purposes  and  20 
kinds  of  woods  and  barks  suitable  for  dyeing  and  tanning 
were  exhibited  at  the  Chicago  Exposition  in  1893.  The 
great  mora  tree,  three  feet  in  diameter,  is  excellent  for  ship 
building;  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  other  trees  of  hard  wood 
abound. 

Rubber,  chiefly  of  the  hevea  variety,  is  found  and  ex- 
ported both  from  the  Casiquiare-Amazon  section  and  more 
from  Yuruary  in  East  Bolivar.  It  is  cultivated  near  Ocu- 
mare  del  Tuy,  each  tree  there  giving  460  grams  of  juice,  95 
per  cent  pure  rubber.  Several  million  people  are  needed 
to  exploit  the  industry,  in  which  $1,200,000  has  been  in- 
vested. 

Balata,  procured  from  forest  trees  in  a  manner  similar  to 
rubber,  is  allied  to  gutta  percha,  and  is  employed  with  this 
for  many  purposes. 

Divi-divi,  one  of  the  best  and  cheapest  plants  for  tan- 
nin, grows  wild  throughout  the  country,  chiefly  along  the 
coast  and  on  the  edge  of  the  llanos  at  the  foot  of  the  south 
slope  of  the  Coast  Mountains.  Hot  lowlands  with  a  mini- 


90  THE  NORTH  COAST 

mum  average  of  rain  suit  it  best.  It  grows  to  a  height  of 
20-30  feet.  The  brown  pods  three  inches  long  contain  30- 
40  per  cent  of  tannin,  sometimes  even  50.  The  seeds  have 
little.  In  wet  weather  the  tannin  is  liable  to  sudden  fermen- 
tation especially  in  electrical  storms,  when  the  tanning  is 
impeded,  and  the  leather  may  be  stained.  Some  trees  90 
years  old  still  produce  a  full  crop.  Near  Cumana,  a  tree 
may  yield  275  pounds  a  year,  but  in  the  west,  25-50  pounds 
only.  It  is  an  extremely  cheap  source  of  tannin  though 
not  largely  used.  Venezuela  probably  has  more  frequent 
stands  of  this  tree  than  any  other  country.  5000  men  are 
said  to  leave  Ciudad  Bolivar  yearly  for  its  collection  in  the 
interior.  As  cultivated  in  Curasao  plantations,  the  pods 
have  20  per  cent  more  tannin  and  bring  25  per  cent  higher 
price. 

The  Mangrove  bark  is  another  important  source  of 
tannin;  the  tree  growing  in  swampy  ground  is  useful  in 
reclaiming  land  at  the  ocean's  edge.  The  bark  has  22-33 
per  cent  tannin,  the  leaves  nearly  20,  the  wood  some.  The 
stands  are  unlimited  in  number. 

The  Tonka  Bean,  a  black  almond  with  delicious  perfume, 
is  the  fruit  of  the  serrapia  tree.  The  beans  are  used  in 
the  preparation  of  chewing  tobacco  and  in  making  per- 
fumes. The  price  varies  from  50  cents  to  $5  a  pound.  This 
is  a  staple  of  great  value  in  the  Orinoco  forests,  but  many 
gatherers  die  of  fever  or  starve.  A  few  concessions  have 
been  granted  for  the  cultivation  of  tonka  trees,  in  the  public 
lands  of  the  Caura  district.  In  one  year  over  $700,000 
worth  of  the  beans  were  exported. 

Chicle,  used  to  make  chewing  gum,  comes  from  the  sap 
of  a  tree  called  pendare  which  has  a  delicious  fruit,  sapodilla. 
The  tree  may  be  tapped  continuously  8-15  years.  The  sap  is 
boiled  in  the  forest. 

The  Caoba  or  mahogany  tree  grows  from  sea  level  to 
about  3000  feet.  It  may  be  seen  along  the  streets  of  Valen- 
cia. It  grows  to  a  height  of  130  feet  with  a  diameter  of 


VENEZUELA  91 

four  feet  at  the  base.  It  is  exported  to  Europe  and  to  the 
United  States. 

The  Moriche  Palm  grows  in  clumps  on  the  llanos.  From 
the  sap  the  Indians  make  wine,  vinegar,  oil,  soap,  starch; 
and  from  the  leaves,  hats,  clothes,  hammocks,  baskets,  mats, 
etc. 

Fibre  plants  of  superior  quality  exist  in  great  variety 
and  quantity.  Among  these  are  the  cocuiza  sisal  called 
equal  or  superior  to  the  sisal  (hemp)  of  Yucatan;  ramie, 
jipijapa,  flax,  and  other  varieties. 

Plants  for  making  paper  grow  in  profusion,  desirable  for 
use  rather  than  wood  to  save  the  destruction  of  forests.  The 
most  abundant  and  desirable  is  bamboo,  but  many  other 
plants  are  serviceable  including  the  residue  from  sugar  cane. 
The  by-product  of  three  tons  of  sugar  would  be  roughly  two 
tons  of  fibre,  worth  about  $120.  Bitter  cane  and  other 
rushes  might  be  so  used,  either  exported  as  pulp,  or  in  some 
localities  made  into  paper. 

CATTLE  INDUSTRY 

Goats  have  been  spoken  of  as  raised  with  great  profit 
on  the  well  adapted  lands  near  Barquisimeto,  comparatively 
high,  and  on  lowlands  in  the  regions  of  Coro  and  Maracaibo. 

Cattle.  The  cattle  industry  has  still  greater  possibilities. 
The  pastoral  zone  extends  from  Barrancas  to  Colombia  and 
from  the  Vichada  River  to  the  mountains  in  Carabobo. 
While  a  portion  of  the  llanos  like  those  in  Colombia  suffers 
from  severe  drought  in  the  summer,  and  though  in  places 
the  grass  is  thin,  in  this  immense  region  there  is  room  for 
an  enormous  number  of  cattle  where  the  grasses  are  rich. 
Hence  stock  raising  can  be  carried  on  to  great  advantage. 
There  is  some  difficulty  in  transportation,  but  this  is  grad- 
ually improving,  and  with  the  erection  of  more  packing  and 
slaughter  houses,  and  with  improvements  in  breeding,  the 
industry  has  a  sure  future.  Some  stock  raisers,  especially 


92  THE  NORTH  COAST 

General  Gomez,  have  made  great  efforts  for  improvement, 
importing  full  blooded  cattle  of  different  breeds  to  produce 
a  better  kind,  perfectly  adapted  to  the  climate  of  Venezuela. 
Modern  methods  are  being  employed,  and  in  the  valley  of 
Maracay  a  large  number  of  live  stock  is  fattened  ready  to 
supply  the  500  cattle  daily  killed  at  Puerto  Cabello  by  the 
Refrigerating  Company  which  exports  them.  A  new  pack- 
ing house  is  to  be  erected  at  Turiamo.  It  is  reported  that 
a  contract  has  been  made  for  200,000  acres  to  be  colonized 
by  Germans,  who  wish  to  control  the  meat  packing  industry. 
The  number  of  cattle  in  Venezuela  is  estimated  at  3,000,000. 
Sheep,  horses,  hogs  are  also  raised  in  the  valley  of 
Maracay;  acclimated  specimens  of  special  breeds  have  been 
obtained  for  reproduction  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  At 
present  horses  and  mules  are  raised  in  comparatively  small 
numbers. 

MINING 

There  is  hardly  a  precious  metal  or  valuable  mineral 
which  does  not  exist  in  Venezuela,  though  little  has  been 
done  to  exploit  them.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  anti- 
mony, tin,  quicksilver,  asphalt,  petroleum,  coal,  sulphur, 
asbestos,  platinum,  diamonds,  and  other  precious  stones  are 
found ;  25  years  ago  226  deposits  had  been  located :  62  gold, 
29  coal,  14  copper,  10  iron,  etc. 

Gold,  the  most  exported  metal,  while  found  in  every 
State,  has  been  chiefly  sought  and  profitably  worked  in 
Guayana,  where  in  the  Yuruary  region  considerable  mining 
has  been  done.  True  alluvial  belts  are  found,  zones  of  shale, 
and  quartz  veins.  The  alluvial  deposits  known  are  mainly 
near  the  British  Guiana  border  in  the  Cuyuni  and  El  Dorado 
districts.  Placer  gold  exists  along  the  Caroni  River  and  in 
smaller  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco  above  Cuidad  Bolivar. 
The  rock  formation  shows  the  gold  to  be  in  stingers  and 
crystalline  grains  of  arsenical  pyrite,  from  which  the  placers 
and  pockets  have  been  formed. 


VENEZUELA  93 

The  quartz  veins  are  more  northerly  near  El  Callao, 
where  $50,000,000  are  said  to  have  been  produced  in  thirty 
odd  years.  One  mine  in  the  Yuruari  district  has  yielded 
35,000  ounces.  Metal  is  found  in  pockets  50-100  feet  deep 
about  150  miles  from  the  Orinoco.  An  English  company  has 
mining  claims  west  of  El  Callao,  where  the  ore  is  treated 
with  quicksilver  and  cyanide,  yielding  1-4  ounces  per  ton. 
Another  company  is  working  on  the  La  Paz  Bonanza,  where 
10,000  ounces  were  taken  out  by  crude  methods  from  rich 
veinlets  and  pockets  almost  at  the  surface.  Several  other 
companies  are  engaged,  French  and  Venezuelan,  one  along 
the  Cicapra  River,  a  branch  of  the  upper  Yuruari.  It  is 
estimated  that  several  million  cubic  yards  with  an  average 
yield  of  $1.00  each  are  here  available  at  a  cost  of  50  cents 
per  yard.  With  better  transportation  and  other  facilities 
this  section  may  come  into  the  front  rank  of  gold  mining 
districts  in  South  America.  At  present  it  is  said  to  be 
better  adapted  to  individual  operators  than  to  large  com- 
panies. The  climate  is  not.  unhealthf ul  if  suitable  precautions 
are  taken.  The  country  is  well  wooded  except  near  Callao. 
The  average  yearly  production  of  gold  is  900,000  grams. 

Copper  is  known  to  exist  in  several  States :  Falcon,  Cara- 
bobo,  Merida,  Lara,  a  rich  deposit  in  the  northern  part  of 
Cojedes;  but  the  only  one  vigorously  and  very  profitably 
operated  is  that  of  Aroa  in  Yaracuy,  where  dividends  have 
been  75-350  per  cent.  Near  Nirgua  in  the  same  State  other 
copper  mines  have  been  worked. 

Coal  is  found  in  various  sections.  Where  outcroppings 
occur  in  Tachira,  Merida,  and  Trujillo  small  operations  have 
been  carried  on.  There  are  other  deposits  but  the  principal 
mines  worked  are  in  Sucre  and  Falcon.  Naricual,  16  miles 
from  Barcelona,  has  produced  the  most  coal,  but  not  of  a 
very  good  quality.  It  is  used  on  local  steamers  and  rail- 
ways, and  some,  with  pitch  from  Trinidad,  is  made  into 
briquettes.  A  little  west,  another  mine  with  coal  of  better 
quality  has  been  opened  within  five  miles  of  tide  water  on 


94  THE  NORTH  COAST 

the  bank  of  a  river.  The  mines  of  Falcon  near  Coro  have 
been  developed  further  and  production  is  increasing.  Coke 
ovens  have  been  established.  Coal  is  found  in  several 
places  near  Lake  Maracaibo.  In  the  deposit  60  miles  north- 
west of  Maracaibo  the  coal  is  of  high  grade,  better  than 
Middle  West  coal  and  equal  to  the  Pocahontas ;  hard,  bright, 
black,  excellent  for  steaming.  Some  veins  are  8-20  feet 
thick,  and  when  the  railway  to  Castilletes  is  completed  the 
annual  export  is  expected  to  reach  500,000  tons.  Lignite, 
bituminous,  and  semi-anthracite  varieties  are  found. 

Iron  ore  deposits  occur  in  the  eastern  hills  or  mountains 
south  of  the  Delta,  but  in  the  Delta  Territory  at  Imataca. 
It  is  67  per  cent  pure  and  almost  free  from  sulphur  and 
phosphorus.  In  1914  some  Americans  secured  options.  Iron 
is  also  found  near  Coro,  Barinas,  Barcelona,  and  Cumana. 

Salt  is  found  on  the  island  of  Coche,  on  the  peninsula  of 
Araya  near  Cumana,  in  the  vicinity  of  Barcelona  and  of 
Maracaibo,  and  elsewhere. 

Sulphur  appears  to  exist  in  commercial  quantities  about 
II  miles  inland  from  Corupano;  and  other  minerals  have 
been  observed  in  various  States. 

Diamonds  and  Pearls.  There  are  said  to  be  diamond 
mines  in  the  Orinoco  region.  Pearl  fishing  is  carried  on 
among  the  islands,  about  1600  persons  being  so  engaged. 
Rakes  are  now  used  as  diving  is  prohibited.  Recently 
$600,000  worth  were  exported  within  a  few  months. 

Asphalt,  found  in  the  Bermudez  Pitch  Lake  five  miles 
from  Guanoco  in  the  State  of  Sucre,  is  an  important  source 
of  wealth.  This  lake,  the  largest  known  deposit  in  the 
world  (noo  acres),  has  more  than  ten  times  the  area  of  the 
famous  Trinidad  Lake,  though  it  is  not  so  deep.  It  is  re- 
garded as  the  residue  of  evaporated  petroleum,  the  asphalt 
here  representing  the  outflow  of  80,000,000  barrels  of  oil. 
The  flow  continues,  the  oil  spreading  over  the  lake  and  re- 
plenishing it.  This  with  active  seepages  near  indicates  enor- 
mous oil  bearing  formations  below. 


VENEZUELA  95 

The  General  Asphalt  Company  and  its  subsidiaries  have 
a  30  year  lease  of  nearly  12,000  acres  including  the  lake. 
The  structure  of  the  lake  includes  faulting,  folding,  and 
fracturing  of  strata,  with  formations  of  black  shale,  sand- 
stone, and  fossiliferous  limestone,  the  last  supposed  to  be 
the  source  of  the  oil,  and  the  sandstone  its  reservoir,  whence 
from  pressure  of  gas  it  escapes  to  the  surface.  A  narrow 
gauge  railway  is  in  use.  From  lack  of  transport  hardly 
20,000  tons  of  asphalt  were  shipped  from  Bermudez  Lake 
in  1920  compared  with  over  40,000  in  1919;  from  Trinidad 
Lake,  about  70,000  in  1919  and  over  108,000  in  1920.  In 
the  Bermudez  concession  is  a  large  asphalt  deposit  100-200 
yards  across,  on  the  Island  of  Capure  in  the  Orinoco  Delta. 

In  the  Maracaibo  Basin  are  other  beds.  One  near  the 
Lake  at  Inciarte,  27  miles  from  navigable  water,  is  94  per 
cent  pure;  but  transportation  is  difficult. 

The  Petroleum  prospects  of  Venezuela  are  excellent. 
The  chief  work  accomplished  is  in  the  Maracaibo  Basin, 
which  is  regarded  as  one  of  petroleum  as  well  as  of  water. 
Many  companies  are  engaged  in  development  work.  After 
two  years  of  preliminary  examination  by  35  experienced 
geologists,  the  Caribbean  Petroleum  Company  selected  1000 
areas  averaging  1250  acres  each  for  further  investigation. 
Of  these  they  now  retain  250,  covering  312,500  acres.  With 
a  lease  concession  for  30  years,  a  tax  of  eight  cents  an  acre 
is  paid  annually  and  a  royalty  equal  to  about  ten  per  cent 
on  oil  shipped  from  the  country.  On  one  section,  the  Mene 
Grande  Field,  ten  miles  east  of  Lake  Maracaibo  to  which 
a  road  through  swamps  was  built,  about  a  dozen  wells  have 
been  drilled,  in  all  of  which  oil  has  been  found.  The  first 
were  capped,  but  with  present  facilities  flow  is  permitted. 
The  character  of  the  oil  improves  with  depth.  Three  55,000- 
barrel  steel  tanks  have  been  erected,  and  pumping  stations 
on  the  field  and  at  the  port.  A  pipe  line  was  laid  n  miles 
to  the  shore  at  San  Lorenzo,  where,  70  miles  southeast  of 
Maracaibo,  storage  tanks  and  a  refinery  were  built.  The 


96  THE  NORTH  COAST 

latter,  now  in  operation,  will  refine  every  grade  of  oil  except 
lubricants.  The  capacity  is  2000  barrels  daily  (42  gallons 
each).  One  well  is  said  to  rank  in  output  with  some  of  the 
Mexican.  Much  of  the  oil  is  now  used  by  some  Venezuelan 
railways,  and  by  industries  of  the  country.  Part  of  the 
crude  oil  is  carried  by  three  barges  and  eight  converted 
monitors  of  450-500  tons  each  to  a  refinery  at  Curasao, 
which  has  larger  storage  tanks,  pumping  station,  etc.  The 
refinery  has  been  running  1000  tons  of  crude  oil  daily,  but 
can  take  care  of  4000  tons.  The  swift  current  of  the  Mara- 
caibo  Channel  makes  management  of  the  monitors  difficult. 
This  Company  has  other  wells  at  Peri j a,  50  miles  west  of 
the  Lake.  The  first,  which  struck  oil  at  1227  feet,  was  shut 
in.  One  in  the  Limon  Field,  drilled  to  2752  feet,  was  aban- 
doned. 

Other  companies  have  concessions  for  work  near  the 
Lake,  at  the  east,  south,  and  southwest.  One  was  ham- 
pered by  wild  Indians,  compelling  the  employment  of  armed 
guards,  another  by  extremely  unhealthful  conditions;  but 
both  after  some  unsuccessful  work  have  found  promising 
wells.  The  Colon  Developing  Company,  with  a  large  prop- 
erty 100  miles  west  of  Encontrados  and  near  the  Colom- 
bian border,  has  struck  oil  at  less  than  1300  feet,  close  to 
the  Rio  de  Oro.  Two  thousand  barrels  of  high  grade  oil 
were  produced  within  24  hours,  but  as  no  facilities  for  trans- 
port existed  the  well  was  capped.  This  oil  is  said  to  be  of 
quality  superior  to  that  east  of  the  Lake,  which  is  better 
than  the  Mexican. 

East  of  the  Lake,  another  field,  north  of  the  Mene 
Grande,  is  owned  by  the  Venezuelan  Oil  Concessions.  Wells 
drilled  here  have  passed  through  three  oil  bearing  sands; 
the  deeper,  the  better  and  lighter  the  oil.  One  has  spouted 
80  feet  high ;  another  over  the  top  of  the  derrick.  An  area 
of  several  square  miles  is  proved.  This  Company  has  3000 
square  miles  of  oil  bearing  land  near  the  Lake  for  50  years. 
In  Mexico  wells  producing  100,000  barrels  a  day  are  seen. 


VENEZUELA  97 

The  general  manager  of  this  Company  believes  the  Vene- 
zuelan wells  will  be  bigger. 

The  Venezuelan  Falcon  Oil  Syndicate,  which  has  a  50 
year  concession  of  over  2000  square  miles  in  Falcon,  expects 
to  open  up  many  fields.  Pipe  lines  could  converge  and  re- 
fineries be  installed  within  50  miles  of  the  farthest  point. 
The  first  well  drilled  is  37  miles  from  the  seaboard.  Motor 
tractors  are  employed.  The  British  Controlled  Oilfields  has 
taken  over  the  Bolivar  Concessions,  which  has  the  right  to 
bore  in  7,000,000  acres  in  Falcon. 

On  the  Island  of  Trinidad  362,800  barrels  of  crude  petro- 
leum were  produced  in  1920.  Near  this  Island,  correspond- 
ing to  the  oil  region  at  the  northwest  of  Venezuela,  is  one 
at  the  northeast  around  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  especially  at  the 
south,  and  comprising  the  Orinoco  Delta.  Here  is  found 
the  heavier  form  of  petroleum  in  large  quantities.  Some 
wells  have  been  drilled  on  the  Peninsula  of  Paria  with  no 
good  result.  The  Guanoco  Field,  south,  is  believed  to  cover 
the  axis  and  flanks  of  the  Guanoco  anticlines,  of  which  the 
southern  is  thought  to  be  responsible  for  the  great  oil  seep- 
ages of  the  Asphalt  Lake.  The  field  is  believed  to  extend 
60  miles  southwest,  to  and  beyond  the  San  Juan  River.  The 
first  well  was  drilled  (1912)  in  the  Lake.  Heavy  oil,  specific 
gravity  1.02,  was  found  under  enormous  gas  pressure,  mak- 
ing operations  difficult.  Production  of  looo  barrels  a  day 
was  secured  at  615  feet,  but  the  well  was  closed  to  avoid 
waste.  Later  it  produced  in  three  months  50,000  barrels. 
Other  wells  have  been  drilled  in  the  vicinity,  also  on  Peder- 
nales  Island  in  the  Delta;  the  oil  from  the  latter  of  lighter 
gravity.  For  some  purposes  the  heavy  oil  is  of  special  value. 
It  is  too  heavy  to  pump,  but  the  strong  gas  pressure  makes 
it  available.  The  areas  are  swampy,  difficult  to  work,  and 
unhealthful. 


98  THE  NORTH  COAST 

MANUFACTURES 

As  might  be  expected,  the  manufacturing  industries  of 
Venezuela  are  few  in  number  and  rely  in  the  main  on  a 
protective  tariff  for  existence.  The  principal  articles  made 
are  cotton  goods,  paper,  glass,  cement,  cordage,  soap, 
candles,  shoes,  alpargatas,  leather  goods,  cigars,  cigarettes, 
etc.  The  five  cotton  factories  produce  80  per  cent  of  the 
ordinary  cloth  consumed  in  the  country.  In  Merida  are 
woolen  and  hat  factories.  In  Caracas  good  furniture  is 
made,  macaroni,  paper,  etc.  There  is  a  paper  factory  also 
at  Maracay.  Ten  miles  from  Caracas  the  waterfall  of  Nai- 
guata,  over  3000  feet,  makes  available  30,000  horse  power,  of 
which  9000  is  used. 

INVESTMENTS 

Among  the  various  opportunities  for  the  investment  of 
foreign  capital,  including  all  of  the  industries  mentioned,  the 
safest  are  agriculture  and  stock  raising;  perhaps  also  small 
factories.  Land  is  so  cheap  that  little  capital  is  needed 
for  the  agriculturist  unless  engaging  on  a  very  large  scale. 
Coffee,  cacao,  sugar  cane,  castor  beans,  and  many  other 
articles  may  be  raised  with  profit.  Factories  large  or  small 
may  be  operated  to  advantage.  Cumana  and  Puerto  Cabello 
are  good  places  for  canning  tropical  fruits.  Oil  may  be  ex- 
tracted for  edible  or  industrial  purposes  from  coconuts,  pea- 
nuts, and  other  fruits  or  vegetables.  Chocolate  may  be 
made,  cotton  mills  established.  A  mill  is  suggested  for 
Margarita,  where  fine  cotton  is  grown.  Rope  and  bag  fac- 
tories might  employ  Venezuelan  cocuiza  or  henequen  to  make 
the  2,000,000  bags  needed  annually  in  the  country.  Saw 
mills  at  Cumana,  Maracaibo,  La  Ceiba,  Tucacas,  etc.,  would 
be  extremely  useful. 

Large  capitalists  may  find  opportunities  for  the  construc- 
tion of  public  utilities  such  as  street  railways,  electric  light 


VENEZUELA  99 

and  power  plants,  water  works,  sewers ;  also  in  bridge  build- 
ing, railway  construction,  etc.  Some  might  be  interested  in 
mining,  especially  of  iron,  which  is  found  favorably  located 
for  transportation  within  half  a  mile  of  a  navigable  river 
about  50  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  To  indi- 
viduals with  small  capital  the  gold  region  would  be  more 
attractive.  An  important  development  of  the  large  deposits 
of  bauxite  is  attracting  much  attention. 


CHAPTER  XII 
GUIANA  AS  A  WHOLE :  BRITISH  GUIANA 

The  name  Guiana  has  been  applied  to  the  entire  country 
between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon.  We  have  observed 
that  in  Venezuela  the  region  south  of  the  Orinoco  is  called 
the  Guiana  Highlands.  We  shall  notice  later  that  the  section 
south  of  the  dividing  mountain  range  and  north  of  the 
Amazon  as  far  west  as  the  Rio  Negro  is  called  Brazilian 
Guiana;  but  the  country  which  is  more  strictly  Guiana  is 
east  and  north  of  these,  though  here,  too,  adjectives  are  ap- 
plied as  there  are  three  divisions:  British,  Dutch,  and 
French  Guiana,  the  British  on  the  west,  the  French  farthest 
east. 

AREA 

The  area  of  them  all  is  about  170,000  square  miles,  of 
which  British  Guiana  has  90,000,  Dutch  46,000,  and  French 
33,000  square  miles. 

As  these  countries  are  colonies  instead  of  republics  their 
governments  are  naturally  different. 

Although  sighted  by  Columbus  in  1498  and  visited  not 
long  afterward  by  traders,  as  there  was  a  large  Indian  popu- 
lation, the  country  was  settled  later  than  Venezuela  and 
Colombia.  After  various  vicissitudes  the  earliest  colonies 
were  abandoned.  The  difficulties  of  the  later  settlements, 
the  changes,  insurrections,  massacres,  wars,  and  troubles 
of  various  kinds  following  are  too  numerous  to  recount,  and 
we  come  immediately  to  conditions  of  the  present  time. 

100 


GUIANA  101 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  three  divisions  of  Guiana  are  similar,  having  first 
a  low  marshy  coast  land,  rising  at  the  back  very  slightly 
for  a  distance  of  10  to  40  miles.  A  broader,  more  elevated 
tract  of  sandy  or  clayey  soil  follows  with  a  still  higher 
region  in  the  rear.  Of  the  southern  section  the  eastern  part 
is  almost  all  forest,  the  central  and  southwest  portions  have 
more  grass  clad  savannas,  which  might  support  thousands 
of  cattle  if  there  were  any  way  to  get  them  out.  There  is 
a  vast  network  of  water  ways,  many  rivers  in  their  lower 
sections  near  the  coast  being  connected  by  canos.  The  forest 
varies,  being  dense  in  river  bottoms  and  thin  on  sandy  soils. 
The  longest  river,  the  Essequibo,  is  about  600  miles,  others 
a  little  less.  At  from  50  to  100  miles  inland,  all  the  rivers 
are  blocked  by  rapids,  but  some  are  accessible  to  large 
vessels  as  far  as  these.  There  are  various  hills  and  moun- 
tains, the  highest,  the  Pacaraima  Range,  marking  in  part  the 
boundary  with  Venezuela,  the  Acarai  Mountains  with 
Brazil ;  the  two  form  the  water  shed  between  the  Amazon, 
the  Orinoco,  and  the  Essequibo  rivers.  Mt.  Roraima,  alti- 
tude 8635  feet,  rising  as  a  red  rock  1500  feet  above  the  forest, 
is  said  to  have  as  its  top  a  tableland  of  12  square  miles. 
Several  other  mountains  are  from  7000  to  8000  feet  high. 
Ranges  of  hills  and  mountains  from  2000  to  3000  feet  trav- 
erse the  country  elsewhere.  In  Dutch  and  French  Guiana 
are  almost  impenetrable  forests,  less  explored  than  those  of 
British  Guiana,  especially  towards  the  south.  A  splendid 
waterfall  is  the  Kaieteur,  nearly  five  times  as  high  as  Niagara, 
741  feet,  with  81  feet  of  cataracts  just  below,  in  the  midst 
of  lovely  tropical  vegetation.  Many  other  beautiful  falls 
of  less  height,  and  cascades  provide  an  immense  amount  of 
water  power. 

The  climate  is  considered  good  in  most  places  though 
there  is  large  rain-fall,  at  Georgetown  averaging  93  inches 
a  year,  in  some  places  100;  but  there  is  no  yellow  fever, 


102  THE  NORTH  COAST 

and   other   diseases    except   in    certain    localities    may   be 
guarded  against. 

BRITISH  GUIANA 

Area.  This  colony  has  an  area  of  90,000  square  miles, 
exceeding  that  of  Great  Britain,  a  sea  coast  of  270  miles, 
and  a  depth  varying  from  300  to  535  miles. 

The  Population  according  to  the  official  report  of  1919 
is  310,000. 

Boundary.  British  Guiana  has  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on 
the  northeast,  Dutch  Guiana  east,  the  Corentyn  River  serv- 
ing most  of  the  way  as  the  boundary  line;  Brazil  is  on  the 
south,  and  Brazil  and  Venezuela  are  west. 

The  Government  is  practically  that  of  a  Crown  Colony 
with  a  Governor  who  has  almost  absolute  power.  He  is 
assisted  by  a  legislative  council  which  has  no  great  influ- 
ence. 

The  Population  is  mixed,  East  Indians  and  negroes 
forming  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  total,  some 
mestizos,  Chinese,  Indians,  and  10,000  whites.  The  large 
majority  of  the  people  live  in  the  coastal  belt.  Many  negroes 
were  brought  from  Africa  as  slaves,  who,  after  their  eman- 
cipation, in  large  numbers  refused  to  work  on  the  planta- 
tions as  before.  East  Indians  were  then  brought  in,  who 
though  not  so  strong  are  more  industrious  and  have  better 
health  than  those  of  other  races;  for  one  reason  because 
they  dress  to  suit  the  climate,  draping  themselves  with  a  few 
yards  of  cotton  cloth  in  a  really  artistic  manner.  The  native 
Indian  is  useful  to  the  traveler  as  boatman,  wood-cutter,  or 
huntsman,  also  to  gold  diggers,  and  seekers  of  balata.  Some 
of  the  half  civilized  are  fairly  reliable.  If  they  become 
friends  they  are  of  great  value.  The  wild  Indians  are  dis- 
appearing, perhaps  going  farther  back. 

Education  is  mainly  carried  on  by  religious  denomina- 
tions, with  missions  in  outlying  districts ;  224  schools  receive 


BRITISH  GUIANA  103 

government  assistance ;  there  is  one  government  free  school 
in  Georgetown  where  students  may  be  prepared  for  English 
universities  or  for  ordinary  fields  of  labor.  Of  course  there 
is  full  religious  liberty,  but  the  government  subsidizes  the 
principal  churches,  especially  the  English  and  Scotch,  in  the 
country  the  parishes  alternating.  The  Roman  Catholic  and 
the  Methodist  churches  also  receive  annual  grants.  Other 
denominations  are  represented,  but  receive  no  assistance 
except  in  some  cases  for  schools. 

The  Post  Office  is  up  to  date  with  telephone  (1800  miles 
of  wire),  telegraph  (575  miles),  and  savings  bank  attach- 
ments, the  last  having  over  a  million  dollars  on  deposit. 
There  is  cable  communication  with  the  West  Indies  and 
wireless.  British  money  is  not  in  general  use;  dollars  and 
cents  according  to  the  decimal  system  of  America  are  the 
common  currency.  The  weights  and  measures  are  naturally 
British  like  our  own. 

The  Capital  of  British  Guiana,  Georgetown,  population 
54,000,  located  at  the  mouth  of  the  Demerara  River,  is  a 
tropical  garden  city  with  broad  streets,  interesting  stores, 
a  club,  a  museum,  a  curious  market.  On  account  of  damp- 
ness the  houses  are  all  built  on  pillars.  The  city  has  50  miles 
of  paved  streets  with  good  tramways,  etc. 

PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

The  chief  ports  of  the  Guianas  are  the  three  capitals,  which 
are  connected  with  the  outside  world  by  the  West  Indies  Mail 
Services  of  the  three  mother  countries,  while  other  steamship 
lines  run  regularly  to  London,  Liverpool,  and  Glasgow.  There 
is  mail  service  with  Canada  and  regular  steamers  from  New 
York.  Coast  and  river  steamers  ply  regularly  along  the  coast 
of  British  Guiana  from  the  northwest  extremity  to  the  Ber- 
bice  River,  at  the  mouth  of  which  is  the  city  of  New  Amster- 
dam, called  a  smaller  Georgetown,  not  very  far  from  the 
boundary  of  Dutch  Guiana.  The  country  has  95  miles  of  rail- 


104  THE  NORTH  COAST 

way,  450  of  navigable  rivers,  39  miles  of  canals,  and  322  of 
good  roads. 

A  railway  60  miles  long  connects  Georgetown  with  New 
Amsterdam,  i.e.,  it  reaches  a  point  on  the  Berbice  River  oppo- 
site the  latter  city.  Five  miles  of  this  road  from  Georgetown 
to  Plaisance,  completed  and  opened  for  traffic  in  1848,  is 
actually  the  oldest  railway  in  South  America.  Another  19 
mile  line  goes  from  Vreeden  Hook  opposite  Georgetown  on 
the  Demerara  River  to  Greenwich  Park  on  the  Atlantic  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Essequibo.  Another  short  line  running 
through  primeval  forest  has  been  laid  from  Wismar  on  the 
Demerara,  65  miles  from  its  mouth,  to  Rockstone  on  the 
Essequibo  to  give  access  to  the  upper  part  of  the  latter  river 
above  extensive  and  dangerous  rapids,  and  further  to  the 
Potaro  and  other  gold  fields.  The  Road,  besides  passenger 
and  tourist  traffic  handles  a  variety  of  timber.  Its  owners, 
(Sprostons  Ltd.),  who  employ  over  1000  men,  maintain  a 
coast  and  river  service,  and  own  a  foundry,  lumber  yard, 
etc.  A  railway  to  the  Brazil  boundary,  long  planned,  would 
open  up  the  interior  and  its  valuable  resources.  From  Rock- 
stone,  launches  run  90  miles  up  the  river  to  Potaro  Land- 
ing. A  service  was  to  be  organized  to  the  Kaieteur  Falls  on 
the  Potaro  River. 

Ferries  cross  the  mouths  of  the  three  principal  rivers, 
the  Essequibo,  the  Demerara,  and  the  Berbice.  The  estuary 
of  the  Essequibo  River  is  15  miles  wide.  It  contains  several 
large  islands,  on  some  of  which  are  plantations.  Vessels 
drawing  less  than  20  feet  can  enter  the  river  and  go  up  50 
miles.  The  mouth  of  the  Demerara  River,  two  miles  wide, 
has  a  sand  bar  prohibiting  the  entrance  of  vessels  drawing 
more  than  19  feet.  To  such  as  enter,  the  river  is  navigable 
for  70  miles.  The  Berbice  River,  two  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth,  is  navigable  105  miles  for  vessels  drawing  12  feet 
and  175  miles  for  boats  drawing  7  feet.  The  Corentyn  River 
with  an  estuary  14  miles  wide  is  navigable  for  150  miles;  this 
river  is  the  boundary  between  British  and  Dutch  Guiana. 


BRITISH  GUIANA  105 

Roads  good  enough  for  automobiles  and  carriages,  which 
use  them,  extend  from  the  Corentyn  River  along  the  coast 
some  miles  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  Essequibo  and  a  few 
miles  up  the  rivers. 

RESOURCES 

At  present  agriculture  and  mining  are  the  leading  in- 
dustries. 

AGRICULTURE 

Sugar,  the  chief  source  of  revenue  for  the  colony,  in 
slavery  days  brought  great  wealth  to  the  planters ;  but  after 
the  emancipation  some  estates  were  divided,  the  negroes 
refused  to  work  steadily  if  at  all,  and  production  greatly 
declined.  At  length  East  Indians  who  were  imported  helped 
to  revive  the  industry.  Of  105,000  agricultural  laborers 
73,000  are  East  Indians.  The  plantations  are  mostly  in  the 
coastal  lowlands  where  77,000  acres  are  cultivated.  Atten- 
tion to  the  dams  needed  to  keep  out  the  sea  in  front  and 
water  from  the  morass  at  the  side,  also  to  the  drainage 
ditches,  necessary  on  account  of  the  sudden  rains,  occa- 
sionally ten  inches  a  day,  adds  much  to  the  labor,  as  they 
demand  incessant  care.  The  value  of  the  product  in  1916 
including  sugar  and  rum  was  estimated  at  $15,000,000  or 
more.  Demerara  sugar  has  long  been  famous;  the  soil  is 
extremely  fertile. 

Rice,  to  which  60,000  acres  are  devoted,  and  which  the 
East  Indians  especially  consume,  is  next  to  sugar  in  im- 
portance. Formerly  39,000,000  pounds  were  imported  an- 
nually, while  in  1916,  about  70,000,000  pounds  were  pro- 
duced and  30,000,000  exported.  The  largest  producer  is  an 
American  company.  The  value  of  the  rice  exported  in  1916 
was  over  $1,000,000.  The  quality  is  superior  to  the  East 
Indian. 

Coconuts.  Increasing  attention  is  paid  to  raising  coco- 
nuts. Thirty  thousand  acres  of  the  trees,  which  seem  to 


106  THE  NORTH  COAST 

enjoy  the  sea  breeze,  have  been  planted.  In  one  year 
2,000,000  nuts  and  180,000  pounds  of  copra,  dried  coconut, 
were  exported,  also  coconut  oil,  the  value  of  all  the  products 
shipped  being  $45,000.  This  will  be  greatly  increased  when 
all  the  trees  come  into  bearing. 

Cacao.  The  culture  of  cacao,  as  yet  unimportant,  is 
increasing.  It  grows  well  in  the  river  bottoms  of  the  forest 
region,  but  does  not  like  the  sea  breezes.  It  may,  however, 
be  protected  from  these  on  the  coast  lands  by  a  wind  break 
of  tall  trees. 

Coffee  also  has  been  neglected  though  about  240,000 
pounds  were  exported  in  1914.  Its  quality  is  said  to  be 
equal  to  that  of  Trinidad  or  Caracas. 

Para  rubber  is  cultivated  in  plantations  on  river  lands 
and  immediately  back  of  the  coast,  more  than  6000  acres 
being  planted ;  but  as  yet  little  has  been  exported. 

The  plantain,  beloved  by  the  negro,  and  praised  for  its 
food  value,  is  grown  in  enormous  quantities.  The  unripe 
fruit  is  usually  eaten  boiled,  but  is  better  fried,  or  roasted 
and  buttered.  Sliced,  dried,  and  ground,  it  is  thought  by 
some  to  be  superior  to  arrowroot  or  sago. 

Other  tropical  fruits  might  be  grown  for  export,  oranges, 
limes,  mangoes,  pineapples,  sapodilla  called  luscious,  guava, 
cassava  biscuit,  etc.  The  saouri  nut  which  grows  in  the  forest 
one  writer  calls  the  most  delicious  nut  in  the  world. 

FORESTS 

About  five-sixths  of  the  country  is  forest  land,  nearly  all  the 
property  of  the  government.  These  78,000  square  miles  of 
timber  are  largely  inaccessible  on  account  of  the  numerous 
waterfalls  and  rapids  of  the  rivers ;  a  railway  line  to  the  remote 
interior  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  timber  and  lumber 
trade  is  slight,  though  the  greenheart,  a  wood  of  great  strength, 
weighing  75  pounds  the  cubic  foot,  is  sought  for  its  use  in 
the  construction  of  docks,  heavy  flooring,  etc.  The  trees 


BRITISH  GUIANA  107 

which  grow  in  clay  soil  near  rivers  and  creeks  supply  logs  18 
by  24  inches,  70  feet  long.  Most  of  it  is  shipped  to  Panama 
where  it  was  used  in  the  locks ;  40  to  60  varieties  of  trees  are 
found  on  an  acre.  The  export  of  balatd  is  important,  only 
sugar,  rum,  and  gold  preceding  it  in  value,  nearly  $1,000,000 
worth  in  a  year.  It  is  a  kind  of  gutta  percha  much  used  for 
belting.  The  tree  is  tapped  the  same  way  as  a  rubber  tree. 
Licenses  are  granted  for  certain  forest  areas  and  the  country 
is  ranged  over  by  prospectors  and  tappers.  Over  1,000,000 
pounds  are  produced.  The  milk  resembles  that  of  the  cow, 
and  is  sometimes  used  for  coffee,  but  it  is  believed  to  be  un- 
wholesome. A  tree  usually  yields  one  gallon,  which  produces 
five  pounds  of  balata,  but  some  trees  five  gallons.  The  trees 
must  not  be  tapped  oftener  than  once  in  four  years. 

In  the  forest  are  found  various  gums  and  balsams,  the 
copaiba,  the  tonka  bean,  the  basis  of  many  perfumes,  vanilla, 
nutmeg,  oils  from  palm  nuts,  and  most  important,  the  caraba 
oil  which  is  used  by  the  Indians  to  lubricate  their  bodies  and 
to  dress  the  hair  for  the  purpose  of  warding  off  noxious  insects 
and  vermin.  It  has  a  strong  unpleasant  odor,  doubtless  arising 
from  its  valuable  properties.  Light  woods  suitable  for  paper 
are  found  and  many  others  of  value.  There  is  a  variety  of 
fibre  plants,  agave,  pineapple,  pita  hemp,  and  others,  some  of 
which  might  be  utilized  to  save  the  great  importation  of  rice 
and  sugar  bags.  There  is  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  pulp 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  paper. 

MINING 

Mining  is  an  important  industry  in  Guiana,  the  mineral 
wealth  being  chiefly  in  gold  and  diamonds,  though  recently 
bauxite,  valuable  as  a  source  of  aluminum  and  for  other  pur- 
poses, has  been  found  in  what  promises  to  be  paying  quan- 
tities. 

Gold  mining  was  prosecuted  in  the  I7th  and  i8th  cen- 
turies, but  not  much  in  the  iQth  till  1857  when  some  activity 


108  THE  NORTH  COAST 

began  in  the  Yuruan  district  and  later  along  the  Cuyuni 
River.  In  the  former  a  nugget  of  180  ounces  was  obtained. 
By  1885  the  industry  had  become  important  and  an  Ameri- 
can prospector  finding  275  pounds  of  gold  created  much 
excitement.  Later  a  nugget  of  333  ounces,  worth  over 
$6500,  was  discovered  at  Barima.  Most  of  the  gold  has 
been  taken,  largely  by  Indians,  from  alluvial  diggings; 
some  dredging  has  been  successful.  In  25  years  nearly 
3,000,000  ounces  were  mined.  In  1913  the  output  was  from 
ten  different  river  districts.  A  good  recent  find  was  near 
Pigeon  Island  on  the  Cuyuni.  Most  of  the  districts  are  so 
difficult  of  access  that  scientific  mining  with  modern  ma- 
chinery is  almost  impossible.  In  1915  about  54,000  ounces 
were  produced  and  since  1890  over  $40,000,000. 

A  new  gold  field  discovered  by  American  prospectors 
is  between  the  head  of  the  Takutu  River  and  the  Tucurutu 
Mountains. 

Many  diamonds  are  found  but  mostly  small.  In  13 
years  from  1900  over  1,000,000  stones  weighing  85,800  carats 
were  produced;  in  1915  6200  carats  valued  at  $51,000. 

The  discovery  of  oil  in  several  places  has  been  rumored, 
the  most  favorable  indications  being  in  the  Waini  River 
district.  Blocks  of  bitumen  found  off  the  coast  seem  to 
indicate  another  pitch  lake,  and  asphalt  is  said  to  have  been 
located  near  the  coast,  though  not  yet  worked.  White 
quartz  sand  suitable  for  glass  making  and  kaolin  for  pottery 
exist  in  quantity,  forming  reefs  and  sand  hills. 

OTHER  INDUSTRIES 

Cattle  raising  has  great  possibilities  but  slight  develop- 
ment. There  are  112,000  head  of  cattle. 

The  waters  have  several  hundred  species  of  fish,  many 
well  flavored  and  worth  salting.  Isinglass  or  fish  glue  is 
exported. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
DUTCH  AND  FRENCH  GUIANA 

DUTCH  GUIANA 

This  country,  sometimes  called  Suriname,  about  the  size 
of  New  York  State,  by  the  Peace  of  1667  was  conceded  to 
the  Netherlands,  Great  Britain  taking  New  York  in  ex- 
change. Situated  between  British  and  French  Guiana  it  has 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  north,  and  Brazil  on  the  south. 

The  colony  has  a  Governor  and  an  executive  council 
appointed  by  the  Crown,  a  Legislature  elected  from  the  16 
districts.  There  are  District  Courts  besides  a  Supreme 
Court  at  Paramaribo  appointed  by  the  Crown.  The  popu- 
lation is  about  107,500,  the  vast  majority  colored,  besides 
negroes  and  Indians  in  the  forest. 

Paramaribo,  population  37,000,  the  capital  and  the  only 
city  of  importance,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Surinam 
River.  Other  settlements  are  on  or  near  the  coast,  mostly 
a  little  east  or  west  of  the  Surinam,  between  the  Saramacca 
and  the  Commewyne  rivers.  Some  remarkable  cross  chan- 
nels and  the  various  rivers  make  boat  navigation  possible, 
at  least  in  the  rainy  season,  all  the  way  from  the  Maroni 
River,  the  eastern  boundary,  to  the  Corentyn  on  the  west. 
Like  the  rivers  in  British  Guiana  those  here  are  not  navig- 
able far  up,  being  likewise  interrupted  by  rapids.  Back  of 
the  low  coast  land  are  savannas  with  low  hills,  some  rising 
to  3000  feet,  and  impenetrable  forests  back  to  the  Tumac 
Humac  Range  along  the  Brazilian  frontier.  There  are  a 
long  and  a  short  dry  season  with  periods  of  heavy  and 
lighter  rain. 

109 


110  THE  NORTH  COAST 

Transportation.  The  only  port  of  commercial  impor- 
tance is  the  capital.  Internal  communication,  in  addition 
to  the  rivers  and  channels,  is  confined  to  a  single  railway 
extending  109  miles  from  Paramaribo  to  Macami  on  the 
Surinam  River,  a  gold  shipping  point,  to  which  at  last  ac- 
counts there  was  a  weekly  train. 

RESOURCES 

The  natural  resources  of  the  country  are  practically  the 
same  as  those  of  British  Guiana. 

AGRICULTURE 

Sugar  was  a  source  of  great  wealth  in  the  days  of  slavery, 
but  since  this  was  abolished  in  1863  the  industry  has  de- 
clined. Where  once  there  were  400  plantations  with  an 
export  of  26,000,000  pounds  in  the  year  1800,  there  are  now 
hardly  a  dozen,  scarcity  of  labor  hindering  industry.  The 
soil  is  rich,  and  recently  there  has  been  some  revival,  so  that 
25,000,000  pounds  were  produced  in  1918. 

Cacao  has  been  cultivated  from  the  beginning,  and  in- 
creasingly after  the  abolition  of  slavery.  From  1870  when 
1,000,000  pounds  were  exported  the  production  increased 
until  9,000,000  were  exported  in  1895,  since  when  it  has  been 
declining.  Some  plantations  were  ruined  by  a  disease  which 
attacked  the  trees.  Its  effects  have  been  gradually  overcome, 
and  the  crop  in  1918  was  nearly  4,000,000  pounds. 

Coffee  was  a  large  crop  in  the  i8th  century,  400  planta- 
tions producing  over  12,000,000  pounds  annually;  later  the 
production  decreased  to  500,000  pounds,  but  in  1918  was  over 
3,700,000. 

Balata  for  a  while  was  first  in  importance,  but  later 
diminished. 

Rice  alone  shows  progress  but  though  7,500,000  pounds 
are  raised,  some  is  imported,  mostly  from  British  Guiana. 


DUTCH  GUIANA  111 

Some  bananas  are  raised,  over  700,000  bunches,  a  few  sent 
to  Europe.  The  production  of  corn  was  nearly  4,000,000 
pounds;  of  rum  over  1,000,000  litres. 

MINING 

Gold  has  been  mined  for  a  long  time.  After  a  large 
discovery  in  1876  there  was  a  rush  to  the  field.  For  ten 
years  prior  to  1914  gold  production  declined,  but  increased 
in  1915  when  nearly  $800,000  in  bullion  was  exported  to  the 
United  States.  Some  European  countries  have  invested, 
but  few  attempts  with  machinery  have  been  successful. 

An  American  company  is  said  to  have  spent  recently 
$1,000,000  in  prospecting,  in  securing  land,  and  in  construc- 
tion work  about  100  miles  from  Paramaribo.  They  found 
large  areas  with  high  grade  bauxite,  and  gold-quartz  possi- 
bilities. Some  gold  was  procured  from  hand  worked 
placers.  Arrangements  for  placer  working  on  the  Maro- 
wijne  River  have  been  made  with  the  Dutch  and  French 
authorities.  Quicksilver  and  high  grade  iron  ore  are  re- 
ported as  existing.  Great  caution  should  be  exercised  by 
persons  disposed  to  enter  the  field. 

Oil  is  said  to  have  been  located  in  three  places :  on  the 
Surinam  River  about  90  miles  above  Paramaribo;  on  the 
Marowijne,  100  miles  above  Albina;  and  between  the  Suri- 
nam River  and  the  railway,  48  miles  above  the  head  of  deep 
water  navigation.  The  second  field  is  said  to  offer  the 
best  prospects,  but  there  have  been  no  developments. 

OTHER  INDUSTRIES 

Dutch  Guiana  is  rich  in  undeveloped  resources.  There 
are  immense  untouched  forests,  grassy  savannas  capable  of 
feeding  thousands  of  cattle,  undeveloped  mineral  resources', 
but  all  these  await  transportation  facilities. 

East  Indian  coolies  and  Javanese  have  been  brought  to 


112  THE  NORTH  COAST 

the  colony  as  laborers,  but  it  is  said  that  there  are  not 
enough  laborers  in  the  busy  season  and  too  many  the  rest 
of  the  time.  It  is  hoped  that  the  region  will  again  prove 
attractive  for  settlement  and  capital. 

FRENCH  GUIANA 

This  colony,  the  smallest  of  the  three,  has  the  Atlantic 
on  the  north  and  northeast ;  the  Oyapock  River  on  the  east 
and  the  Tumac  Humac  Mountains  on  the  south  separate 
it  from  Brazil,  the  Marowijne  River  from  Dutch  Guiana  on 
the  west.  The  population  is  about  26,000.  The  country  is 
governed  by  a  Commissioner-General,  and  by  a  Privy  Coun- 
cil; there  is  an  elected  Council  of  16  members. 

The  Capital,  Cayenne,  with  about  one  half  of  the  popu- 
lation, at  the  mouth  of  the  Oyack  River,  is  the  only  town 
of  importance.  It  is  well  situated  on  a  rocky  eminence 
with  a  pleasant  view  of  the  harbor.  It  might  be  made  more 
attractive  than  Georgetown,  but  the  colony  has  always  been 
a  little  behind  the  others,  its  use  as  a  penal  settlement  being 
a  great  disadvantage. 

Transportation.  Steamboat  communication  is  had  with 
the  Safety  Islands,  35  miles,  with  the  mouth  of  the  Maro- 
wijne River,  80  miles,  with  the  coast  in  both  directions,  and 
with  the  Island  of  Martinique,  which  has  better  shipping 
communication.  Steamers  of  the  Compagnie  Generate  Trans- 
Atlantique  call  at  Cayenne  monthly. 

RESOURCES 

In  physical  characteristics  this  colony  is  similar  to  the 
others,  but  its  agriculture  is  of  slight  importance.  The 
principal  crops  are  corn,  rice,  manioc,  cacao,  coffee,  sugar, 
indigo,  tobacco. 

Mining  and  forest  products  alone  are  of  value  in  export 
Gold  is  the  chief  production,  more  than  $2,000,000  a  yeaf 


FRENCH  GUIANA  113 

being  generally  exported.  Most  of  the  225  claims  developed 
are  being  worked  by  paroled  convicts.  Those  who  escape 
or  are  paroled  often  give  serious  annoyance  to  the  people  in  the 
other  Guianas  and  are  frequently  a  serious  danger.  Most 
of  the  country  is  still  covered  with  dense  forest,  where  prob- 
ably much  more  gold  will  be  found.  Phosphate  rock  is 
shipped  in  small  quantities. 

The  American  Company  already  referred  to  has  headquar- 
ters at  St.  Laurent,  the  site  of  the  penal  colony,  a  port  40  miles 
up  the  Marowijne  or  Maroni  River.  Here  they  have  big 
dredges,  aeroplanes,  and  a  wireless  station. 

Traces  of  petroleum  have  been  observed  southeast  of 
the  Marowijne  River,  but  the  indications  are  not  of  definite 
importance. 

Forest  products  are  second  in  importance,  rosewood  and 
its  extract,  other  hard  woods,  and  balata  being  exported; 
also  vegetable  oils,  cacao,  and  a  few  domestic  animals. 

Railways  have  been  talked  of,  and  it  is  expected  that 
one  will  be  constructed  towards  the  interior  in  the  not 
remote  future. 

Aeroplane  service  is  reported  as  to  be  installed,  both 
freight  and  passenger,  from  Cayenne  to  the  gold  regions 
of  the  interior. 


THE  WEST  COAST 

CHAPTER  XIV 

ECUADOR:  AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  ETC. 

South  of  Colombia,  fortunate  in  its  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Coast  lines,  are  three  exclusively  Pacific  countries,  unless 
we  count  a  rearward  communication,  so  to  speak,  with  the 
Atlantic  by  the  Amazon  for  the  first  two,  or  note  that  the 
coast  line  of  the  third  runs  at  the  south  quite  to  that  ocean. 
Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Chile,  in  the  order  named,  now  occupy 
the  remaining  Pacific  coast  line  for  the  several  thousand 
miles  from  Colombia  to  the  Horn.  In  the  group  of  West 
Coast  States,  however,  Bolivia  may  be  counted,  for  though 
nearly  forty  years  ago  she  lost  her  small  strip  of  coast  line, 
her  communication  with  the  outside  world  is  chiefly  by  way 
of  the  Pacific,  and  with  these  Republics  she  has  character- 
istics in  common. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  First  of  the  West  Coast  countries  from  the  north, 
Ecuador  has  an  uncertain  area  on  account  of  boundary 
disputes.  That  with  Colombia  is  lately  settled,  but  not  the 
one  with  Peru.  With  approximately  116,000  square  miles 
now  in  her  possession,  she  is  usually  ranked  as  next  to  the 
smallest  South  American  Republic,  Uruguay.  The  country 
extends  from  about  2°  North  Lat.  to  6°  South. 

Population.  As  no  official  census  of  Ecuador  has  ever 
been  taken,  the  population  is  variously  stated.  A  liberal 
estimate  places  the  figures  at  2,000,000. 

114 


ECUADOR  115 

Boundary.  Ecuador's  boundary  is  uncertain  as  to  the 
matter  of  touching  Brazil.  However,  she  has  Colombia  on 
the  north  and  northeast,  Peru  on  the  south,  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  west;  most  maps  give  Peru  a  section  on  the 
southeast  as  well,  shutting  Ecuador  off  from  Brazil. 


HISTORY 

From  the  remote  past,  Ecuador  has  been  inhabited  by 
many  tribes  of  Indians;  one  of  these  held  sway  at  Quito 
for  a  thousand  years  before  their  subjugation  by  the  Peru- 
vian Incas.  Less  than  a  century  later  Pizarro  arrived  with 
the  Spaniards.  Hardly  had  these  conquered  Peru,  when  in 
1534,  the  year  following  the  overthrow  of  Atahuallpa, 
Pizarro  dispatched  Diego  de  Almagro  and  Sebastian  de 
Benalcazar  for  the  conquest  of  Ecuador,  after  which  a  few 
settlements  were  made.  In  1538,  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  brother 
of  the  conqueror,  became  Governor.  In  1540,  with  Fran- 
cisco de  Orellana  and  a  large  expedition,  he  went  east, 
descending  through  the  forests  to  the  Napo  River.  There 
a  boat  was  built  in  which  Orellana  with  others  sailed  down 
to  the  Amazon,  then  on  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  thus  first 
exploring  the  greatest  river  on  the  globe  to  which  he  gave 
its  present  name. 

For  almost  three  centuries  Ecuador  was  ruled  by  Spain, 
most  of  the  time  under  the  authority  of  the  Viceroy  at 
Lima,  until  in  1822  occurred  the  decisive  battle  of  Pichincha, 
which  assured  the  independence  of  Ecuador.  Soon  after, 
the  country  joined  New  Granada  and  Venezuela  in  the 
Colombian  Federation,  but  in  1830  set  up  for  itself  a  sepa- 
rate republic.  Many  difficulties,  insurrections,  and  revolu- 
tions have  occurred  quite  up  to  the  present  time,  n  changes 
of  the  constitution  since  1830;  but  settled  conditions  favor- 
able to  the  country's  development  are  now  hoped  for. 


116  THE  WEST  COAST 

GOVERNMENT 

Ecuador  is  a  centralized  rather  than  a  federal  republic, 
with  the  usual  three  departments.  The  President,  elected 
for  four  years  by  direct  vote,  is  ineligible  for  the  consecutive 
term.  Congress  consists  of  a  Senate  with  32  members  and 
a  Chamber  of  Deputies  with  48.  Suffrage  is  limited  to  males 
over  21  years  of  age,  who  can  read  and  write.  The  Judi- 
ciary consists  of  a  Supreme  Court  at  Quito,  and  six  others 
in  as  many  large  towns,  municipal  and  civil  courts,  and 
justices  of  the  peace.  The  Provinces  are  administered  by 
Governors  named  by  the  Executive,  the  Departments  or  Can- 
tons by  jefes  polvticos,  political  chiefs,  the  Parishes  by  political 
lieutenants,  and  the  municipalities  by  presidents. 

The  Republic,  the  capital  of  which  is  Quito,  has  15  Prov- 
inces and  two  Territories.  Of  the  former,  five  are  along  the 
coast,  and  ten  are  inland  occupying  the  mountainous  sec- 
tion. The  coastal  Provinces  from  the  north  are  Esmeraldas, 
Manabi,  Guayas,  and  El  Oro.  Los  Rios,  although  not  touch- 
ing the  coast,  may  be  counted  with  them,  as  occupying  a 
part  of  the  lowlands,  it  shares  most  of  their  characteristics. 
The  mountain  Provinces,  beginning  at  the  north  are  Carchi, 
Imbabura,  Pichincha,  Leon,  Tungurahua,  Chimborazo, 
Bolivar,  Cafiar,  Azuay,  Loja.  Of  the  two  Territories,  Oriente 
is  of  course  the  section  at  the  east,  which  belongs  to  the 
Amazon  Basin,  the  other  is  the  Galapagos  Islands,  nearly 
600  miles  from  the  main  land. 

These  divisions,  with  approximate  area  and  population, 
their  capitals  with  population  and  altitude  follow: 

POPULATION 

The  population  of  Ecuador,  approximately  2,000,000,  as  in 
all  of  these  tropical  countries  is  in  three  principal  classes :  the 
whites,  the  pure  Indians,  and  the  mestizos,  those  of  mixed 
blood,  here  Spanish  and  Indian.  There  are  also  some  negroes, 
mulattoes,  and  sambos,  the  last  of  negro  and  Indian  blood. 


ECUADOR 


117 


Those  who  in  these  tropical  countries  are  called  white  in  most 
cases  no  doubt  have  a  slight  Indian  strain,  as  few  women 
were  among  the  earliest  settlers ;  but  no  prejudice  exists  on 
this  account.  Even  when  the  Indian  strain  is  apparent, 
having  money  and  education  they  enjoy  the  same  social 
standing  and  occupy  the  highest  positions.  Those  of  pure 
Spanish  blood  in  most  of  the  countries  must  be  few.  The 
whites  with  some  of  the  mestizos  form  a  cultured  class 
with  the  manners  and  customs  for  the  most  part  of  such 
society  anywhere.  The  sons  of  wealthy  families  are  often 
educated  abroad  and  many  have  traveled  in  Europe.  Paris 
fashions  in  dress  are  followed  and  continental  customs  gen- 
erally. Courtesy  is  a  marked  characteristic,  possibly  car- 
ried to  excess. 


PROVINCES 

AREA, 
in  square 
miles 

POPU- 
LATION 

CAPITALS 

POPU- 
LATION 

ALTI- 
TUDE, 
in  feet 

Esmeraldas  

5,4.65 

20,000 

Esmeraldas.  .  .  . 

6,000 

Manabi.  

7,802 

100,000 

Portoviejo.  .  . 

8,000 

Guayas  

8.^O 

120,000 

Guayaquil  

Q4.OOO 

Los  Rios  

2,2Q6 

32,800 

Babahoya  

7.OOO 

ElOro  

2,-;4O 

^5.000 

Machala  

6,000 

Carchi  

1,  40  5 

36,000 

Tulcan  

8,000 

0,765 

Imbabura  

2,415 

70,000 

Ibarra  

10,000 

7,2Q8 

Pichincha  

6,217 

200,000 

Quito  

100,000 

0,748 

Le6n  

2,505 

110,000 

Latacunga  

15,000 

Q,l87 

Tungurahua.  .  .  . 

1,686 

107,000 

Ambato  

14,000 

8,554 

Chimborazo  .  .  ,  . 

2,080 

125,000 

Riobamba  

20,000 

0,177 

Bolivar  

1,160 

45.000 

Guaranda  

8,000 

8,751 

Cafiar  

1.  520 

74.000 

Azogues  

10,000 

8,  \2  1 

3,874 

150,000 

Cuenca  

40,000 

8,465 

Loia  .  . 

•*.7O6 

100,000 

Loja  

I5.OOO 

7.281 

TERRITORIES 
El  Oriente  

80,000 

200,000 

Archidong.  

1,000 

unknown 

Galapagos  

2,868 

1,000 

*  These  capitals  are  at  or  near  sea  level. 


118  THE  WEST  COAST 

The  bulk  of  the  population  is  frankly  mestizo  and  Indian. 
The  mestizos  may  be  more  than  one  half  of  the  population, 
the  Indians  perhaps  one  quarter.  The  Indian  population 
may  be  regarded  as  in  three  principal  classes  of  widely  dif- 
ferent character:  those  of  the  coast,  of  the  highlands,  and 
of  the  Amazon  Basin.  The  Indians  of  the  coast  region  were 
of  various  tribes  speaking  different  languages.  Superficially 
christianized,  most  of  them  have  become  more  or  less  amal- 
gamated with  the  whites  or  with  negroes,  but  in  the  forests 
of  Esmeraldas  where  the  Indians,  living  under  similar  con- 
ditions, closely  resemble  those  of  the  Napo  district,  the 
Cayapas  retain  their  language  and  customs,  continuing  to 
live  apart  from  and  to  avoid  the  whites.  If  not  molested 
they  are  hospitable  and  affable  with  strangers. 

The  Indians  on  the  uplands  are  similar  to  those  on  the 
Peruvian  Plateau,  timid  and  distrustful  of  foreigners,  in- 
cluding the  native  whites.  They  constitute  the  greater  part 
of  the  laboring  class  and  while  not  slaves  in  name  they  are 
forced  to  work  for  a  pittance,  and  they  live  as  a  rule  in 
extreme  poverty  and  ignorance.  Laws  for  their  protection 
are  generally  ignored,  and  throughout  the  entire  Andine 
region  they  are  undoubtedly  in  a  far  lower  condition  than 
when  the  Spaniards  invaded  the  country.  The  mestizos, 
instead  of  sympathizing  with  them,  generally  treat  them 
worse  than  do  the  whites,  some  of  whom  recognize  the 
abuses  to  which  the  Indians  are  subject  and  desire  to  im- 
prove their  condition.  The  Indians  are  strong  and  vigorous, 
especially  as  to  carrying  heavy  burdens  for  great  distances. 
Like  many  other  persons  they  have  an  unfortunate  weakness 
for  alcohol.  The  men  wear  short  loose  trousers  or  drawers 
of  linen  or  cotton,  a  shirt,  and  most  important,  a  woolen 
poncho.  They  go  much  with  bare  feet,  but  usually  have 
sandals  made  of  maguey  fibre  or  rawhide.  The  women 
wear  a  skirt,  a  cloth  covering  the  body,  and  a  manta  or  shawl 
in  which  the  baby  (there  usually  is  one)  or  some  other 
object  is  carried.  With  a  little  education,  kind,  just  treat- 


ECUADOR  119 

ment,  and  decent  wages,  these  people  would  be  converted 
into  a  working  class  of  far  greater  value  than  at  present, 
highly  serviceable  for  the  development  and  progress  of  the 
various  countries. 

Totally  dissimilar  are  the  Indians  of  the  Amazonian 
forest,  of  whom  there  are  46  tribes  north  of  the  Marafion, 
though  the  differences  among  them  are  ascribed  to  environ- 
ment, rather  than  to  diversity  of  race.  These  wear  no  cloth- 
ing or  a  loin  cloth.  Many  are  fairly  light  colored  and  in 
general  they  are  well  formed.  Their  weapons  are  bows  and 
arrows,  and  the  blowpipe  used  also  by  the  Cayapas.  Some 
of  the  tribes  are  especially  savage,  as  the  Jibaros  and  the 
Huambisa  Indians.  The  former  in  early  times  destroyed 
the  Spanish  colonies  on  the  Amazon  affluents,  while  the 
latter  in  1599  seized  the  Spanish  women  after  sacking  Se- 
villa  de  Oro.  Both  of  these  tribes  have  a  considerable 
admixture  of  Spanish  blood  and  are  sometimes  fair  skinned. 
They  have  a  reputation  for  treachery  and  cruelty,  but  it  is 
said  that  their  savage  deeds  are  in  retaliation  for  countless 
wrongs  previously  inflicted  by  white  men,  as  in  the  case 
of  recent  atrocities. 

The  mestizos  who  live  among  the  whites  and  intermarry 
with  them  class  themselves  with  them  whenever  their  eco- 
nomic position  permits.  Dwelling  in  remote  regions  and 
in  villages  among  the  Indians  they  tend  to  revert  to  the 
Indian  type.  Until  they  acquire  wealth  they  form  the 
artisan  element,  the  traders,  and  the  shopkeepers. 

EDUCATION 

Primary  education  is  free  and  obligatory,  but  the  number 
of  schools  is  insufficient,  and  a  large  part  of  the  people  are 
indifferent.  Eighty  thousand  pupils  are  in  attendance,  and 
4500  more  in  the  secondary  schools.  There  are  universities 
at  Quito,  Guayaquil,  and  Cuenca;  six  Schools  of  Arts  and 
Trades,  also  Schools  of  Agriculture,  and  other  institutions 


120  THE  WEST  COAST 

of  a  technical  or  professional  character.  The  machinery  of 
education  is  equal  to  that  of  its  neighbors  if  not  in  advance, 
but  too  many  professional  men  are  found  in  all  the  countries. 


PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

Press.  Excellent  newspapers  exist,  notably  in  Guayaquil 
and  Quito,  influencing  civic  progress. 

Religion.  In  1904  the  Church  was  placed  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  State,  and  all  religions  were  made  equal  before 
the  law.  The  women  are  devoted  to  the  Catholic  Church, 
as  in  all  the  South  American  countries,  but  the  educated 
men  are  largely  materialists.  Civil  marriage  and  divorce 
were  established  in  1904. 

Telegraph.      There    are    several    thousand    telephones, 

.  mostly  in  Guayaquil,  and  about  6000  miles  of  telegraph  wire. 

The  rates  are  10  cents  for  10  words,  and  5  cents  for  10  words 

additional.     Cable  connection  is  made  at  Santa  Elena  on 

the  Pacific,  which  has  also  a  wireless  station. 

Money.  A  condor  is  a  gold  coin  equal  to  an  English 
pound,  and  to  10  sucres.  A  sucre  is  therefore  48.6  cents. 
The  sucre  equals  100  centavos.  The  sucres  and  some  smaller 
coins  are  silver.  The  coinage  of  Peru  is  similar.  It  is  easy 
to  remember  that  a  sucre  or  a  Peruvian  sol  is  about  half  a 
dollar,  a  centavo  half  a  cent. 

The  Metric  System  is  legal,  but  the  old  Spanish  weights 
and  measures,  as  in  Colombia,  are  much  used. 


CHAPTER  XV 
ECUADOR:  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

Ecuador,  like  Peru,  has  three  longitudinal  sections:  the 
Coastal  zone,  the  Inter  Andine  region,  including  the  moun- 
tain ranges  with  the  plateau  or  valleys  between,  and  the 
Trans  Andine,  a  part  of  the  Amazon  basin. 

THE  COASTAL  ZONE 

The  coastal  zone  in  Ecuador  is  much  wider  than  at  the 
north  or  south.  We  have  seen  that  in  Colombia  the  moun- 
tain ranges  are  so  close  to  the  shore  as  to  leave  little  space 
for  cities  or  agriculture,  while  in  Peru  and  Chile  for  the 
most  part  the  mountains  are  visible  from  the  sea.  Further, 
a  good  portion  of  Ecuador's  coastal  zone  resembles  in  some 
respects  the  Amazon  section,  while  in  Peru  the  two  are 
utterly  different.  Ecuador  is  the  only  country  favored  on 
the  Pacific  side  with  rivers  navigable  to  any  considerable 
extent,  and  the  dense  tropical  vegetation  of  much  of  the 
coast  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  Peruvian  deserts.  Re- 
membering that  the  equator  crosses  this  country,  it  is  easy 
to  understand  that  where  there  is  much  rain  the  lowlands 
have  a  humid  tropical  climate.  The  coast  curves  slightly 
outward  from  the  north  to  Capes  San  Lorenzo  and  Santa 
Elena,  the  latter  lacking  but  a  few  miles  of  being  the  most 
western  point  of  South  America,  which  distinction  falls  to 
Peru.  Near  these  capes  the  waters  of  the  cold  Antarctic 
current  turn  west  towards  the  Galapagos  Islands,  the  trop- 
ical waters  above  and  the  colder  current  below  affecting 
the  climate  of  the  two  sections.  Just  south  of  Cape  Santa 

121 


122  THE  WEST  COAST 

Elena  begins  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  the  only  considerable 
arm  of  the  sea  indenting  the  West  Coast  between  Panama 
and  the  Island  of  Chiloe  in  Chile,  a  stretch  of  3000  miles. 
Considering  the  gulf  as  the  broad  triangle  between  Capes 
Santa  Elena,  Ecuador,  and  Blanco  in  Peru,  with  the  island, 
Puna,  as  inner  limit,  the  width  is  140  miles.  The  boundary 
line  of  Ecuador,  a  little  north  of  the  Tumbes  River,  leaves 
most  of  the  Gulf  line  in  that  country.  The  Gulf  penetrates 
east  and  slightly  north  about  100  miles  to  the  Guayas  River 
or  estuary.  Along  the  southern  shore  are  occasional  estu- 
aries with  small  river  openings  and  mangrove  swamps. 

THE  MOUNTAIN  SECTION 

The  central  mountainous  region  belongs  of  course  to  the 
great  chain  of  the  Andes.  As  in  the  countries  previously 
studied,  this  section  of  Ecuador  differs  greatly  from  the 
lowlands.  Happily  the  formation  is  simpler  than  in  Co- 
lombia. Extending  from  a  rather  confused  mass  near  the 
boundary  of  Peru  to  another  jumble  of  peaks  at  the  Colom- 
bian border,  a  distance  of  300  miles,  are  two  parallel  ranges, 
the  East  and  the  West  Cordillera,  from  20  to  30  miles  apart. 
The  plateau  region  between,  which  is  higher  at  the  north, 
is  separated  by  two  lower  transverse  ridges  called  paramos 
into  three  shallow  basins  or  plains :  those  of  Quito,  Ambato, 
and  Cuenca;  the  first  basin  with  an  altitude  of  9500  feet, 
the  second,  8500  feet,  the  third,  7800  feet.  Some  of  the  water 
from  these  flows  into  the  Pacific  and  some  into  the  Atlantic. 
East  and  west  are  the  two  rows  of  mountains  in  a  remark- 
ably symmetrical  arrangement,  sometimes  exactly  opposite 
each  other.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  are  there  two  such 
rows  of  giants  or  such  a  collection  of  snow  crowned  vol- 
canoes. Of  the  22  great  peaks,  several  are  active  volcanoes 
and  more  are  extinct.  The  main  range  or  Cordillera  Real 
is  the  eastern,  with  the  larger  number  of  lofty  peaks;  but 
the  highest  of  all  is  in  the  West  Cordillera,  Chimborazo, 


ECUADOR  123 

altitude  20,498  feet.  This  mountain,  first  ascended  by 
Edward  Whymper,  a  celebrated  English  climber,  in  1880, 
was  formerly  supposed  by  many  to  be  the  loftiest  of  the 
Andes ;  but  farther  south  at  least  a  dozen  peaks  are  higher, 
probably  two  or  three  times  as  many. 

The  volcanic  section,  as  we  have  seen,  extends  into 
Colombia;  but  not  into  Peru.  Especially  noteworthy  are 
Cotopaxi  of  the  East  Cordillera,  the  highest  active  volcano 
in  the  world,  19,613  feet,  and  Pichincha,  the  only  one  his- 
torically eruptive  in  the  West  Cordillera.  The  latter,  sit- 
uated very  near  Quito,  has  been  the  source  of  highly  de- 
structive eruptions.  Sangay,  east  of  the  Ambato  Basin,  the 
most  southern  and  among  the  most  active  on  the  globe,  does 
little  harm  as  no  settlements  are  near.  The  Cuenca  Basin, 
with  no  erupting  volcanoes,  contains  volcanic  material.  In 
the  most  southern  province,  Loja,  no  such  signs  appear,  nor 
in  Peru  for  some  degrees  south. 

ORIENTE 

The  country  of  the  Oriente,  with  no  llanos,  is  similar 
to  forested  southeastern  Colombia.  The  mountains  slope 
down  into  the  forests,  which  cover  their  lower  eastern  de- 
clivities and  the  plain  beyond.  This  inclines  toward  the 
region  of  the  Amazon,  with  slight  undulations  well  away 
from  the  mountains;  but  the  nearer  sections  are  broken  by 
lateral  spurs  from  the  main  chain,  or  by  low  isolated  ranges 
separating  the  basins  of  the  larger  Amazon  affluents. 

RIVERS,  AMAZON  TRIBUTARIES 

North  of  the  nudo  or  knot  in  the  Loja  province,  spurs  and 
ravines  lead  off  from  the  high  mountain  range.  Here  swift 
flowing  streams  descend  in  a  region  called  wild  and  savage. 
Those  rising  farthest  north  reach  the  Amazon  at  a  more 
eastern  point  than  the  streams  rising  nearer,  at  the  south; 


124  THE  WEST  COAST 

so  the  mention  of  the  principal  rivers  of  the  eastern  slope 
will  begin  with  the  most  southern  and  western  tributary. 
It  may  be  remembered  that  the  Amazon  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Marafion  and  the  Ucayali  Rivers,  both  flowing 
northwest  in  Peru,  the  former,  the  one  nearer  the  Pacific 
coast.  Above  6°  S.  Lat.  the  Marafion  turns  sharply  east, 
flowing  with  northerly  and  southerly  deviations,  receiving 
in  its  course  many  tributaries  before  and  after  breaking 
through  the  East  Cordillera  of  Peru  at  the  -Pongo  de  Man- 
seriche.  Here  the  waters  of  the  previously  broad  river  pass 
through  an  extraordinary  chasm  3  miles  long  and  100  feet 
wide.  The  walls  are  not  2000  feet  high  as  often  stated;  in 
one  or  two  places  they  may  rise  40  feet  perpendicularly,  but 
usually  they  are  wooded  slopes,  rising  in  a  single  locality 
perhaps  2000  feet.*  The  principal  rivers  flowing  from 
Ecuador  into  the  Marafion  or  Amazon  are  the  Chinchipe, 
Santiago,  Morona,  Pastaza,  Tigre,  Nanay,  and  Napo.  These 
with  the  streams  from  Colombia  drain  the  northwest  part 
of  the  Amazon  Basin  and  are  capable  of  adding  much  to  the 
economic  value  of  the  region.  The  few  white  settlements 
existing  are  as  nothing  in  this  vast  wilderness. 

The  Chinchipe  River  rises  in  southern  Loja  and  after 
receiving  many  tributaries  flows  into  the  Marafion  a  little 
below  where  that  river  runs  northeast.  The  lower  part  of 
the  Chinchipe  is  navigable. 

The  Santiago  River  rises  near  the  town  of  Loja  between 
the  two  Cordilleras.  Several  of  its  important  tributaries 
rise  in  Loja,  or  in  the  Cuenca  basin  farther  north.  One  of 
these,  the  Pauta,  has  a  branch  rising  only  30  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  a  source  nearer  the  Pacific  than  that  of 
any  other  river  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  unless  it  be  in  the 
very  south  of  Chile.  The  Santiago  enters  the  Marafion  a 
little  above  the  rapids  of  the  Pongo  Manseriche.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  stream  was  once  a  town,  Santiago,  which  like 
Borja  below  the  Pongo  was  destroyed  by  savages. 
*See  Geographical  Journal,  October,  1920 


ECUADOR  125 

The  Morona  River.  Two  of  the  many  tributaries  of  the 
Morona  rise  in  the  East  Cordillera  at  heights  above  13,000 
and  14,000  feet  north  of  the  Apuay  knot.  At  high  water 
the  Morona  is  navigable  for  300  miles,  at  low  water  for  200, 
for  steamers  drawing  from  2  to  4  feet,  and  also  two  of  its 
tributaries;  but  due  to  the  tortuous  course  of  the  river 
the  300  miles  equals  but  120  in  a  straight  line.  Earlier  many 
flourishing  missions  existed  in  this  section,  but  in  the  last 
century  the  Huambisa  Indians  inhabiting  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  Santiago  and  the  Morona  almost  exterminated  the 
Indians  who  had  been  civilized.  So  recently  as  February, 
1913,  members  of  the  same  tribe  massacred  the  soldiers  of 
a  Peruvian  outpost.  This,  notwithstanding,  was  later  re- 
established by  Peru. 

The  Pastaza  River,  rising  in  the  basin  of  Riobamba  at 
a  height  of  nearly  15,000  feet,  flows  through  a  little  known 
district  receiving  many  tributaries.  The  lower  part  is 
navigable  for  steamers  at  high  water  to  the  Huasaga  branch, 
120  miles,  and  200  miles  farther  by  canoe.  This  fluvial 
system  drains  the  basins  of  Latacunga,  Ambato,  and  Rio- 
bamba, the  snows  of  Chimborazo,  Cotopaxi,  and  other  peaks 
contributing  to  its  waters.  A  spot  where  the  unified  river 
at  an  altitude  of  about  6000  feet  in  one  leap  makes  a  splendid 
fall  of  190  feet  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
scenes  in  the  Andes. 

The  River  Tigre  belongs  to  the  region  of  the  plains, 
though  some  of  its  affluents  rise  in  the  East  Cordillera. 
Although  in  volume  not  to  be  compared  to  the  Pastaza  or 
the  Napo  it  is  quite  as  important,  being  navigable  for  steam- 
ers of  4  to  8  feet  draught  at  high  water  for  over  400  miles, 
and  in  low  water  for  steamers  drawing  2  to  4  feet ;  100  miles 
more  on  the  Corriente  branch  and  40  on  the  Pucasuro,  with 
an  additional  1260  miles  by  canoe  on  its  various  tributaries. 
The  region  traversed  is  rich  in  natural  products  and  with 
over  loo  tributaries  the  river  deserves  remembrance.  It 
enters  the  Maranon  40  miles  above  the  Ucayali. 


126  THE  WEST  COAST 

The  Nanay,  a  much  smaller  plains  river  with  a  slow  cur- 
rent, yet  with  a  high  bank  and  a  healthful  climate,  may  be 
ascended  for  105  miles  and  has  some  importance. 

The  Napo  River,  formerly  part  of  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween Colombia  and  Ecuador  but  now  given  over  to  Ecua- 
dor, has  sources  among  the  Ecuadorian  volcanoes,  Coto- 
paxi,  Antisana,  and  others.  At  first  the  descent  is  rapid. 
At  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera  100  miles  from  the  source,  and 
but  1500  feet  above  the  sea,  canoe  navigation  begins  at  the 
village  of  Napo.  Sixty  miles  below,  the  Coca  River  comes 
in.  This  section  includes  the  Napo  missions,  a  beautiful 
region  long  known  and  visited  by  botanists  and  geologists. 
Here  ends  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Church  and  the  land 
of  the  salvo, jes  or  infieles  begins.  It  was  down  the  Coca  valley 
that  Gonzales  Pizarro  and  Orellana  came  in  1540.  From  this 
point  the  Napo  runs  in  forested  plains,  receiving  many  more 
tributaries,  the  large  Aguarico,  and  the  Curaray.  The  Napo 
is  called  navigable  in  high  water  for  steamers  from  the 
Amazon  about  200  miles  up  to  the  Curaray,  some  say  to  the 
Aguarico,  560  miles,  and  little  less  at  low  water.  At  one 
point  the  Napo  is  but  50  or  60  miles  from  the  Putumayo, 
with  which  communication  by  canoe  is  possible,  and  often 
made.  The  route  from  the  Putumayo  to  Iquitos  by  way  of 
the  Napo  is  much  shorter  for  the  rubber  gatherers,  as  the 
Napo  flows  into  the  Amazon  not  far  below  that  city,  while 
the  Putumayo  enters  it  several  hundred  miles  farther  down. 


RIVERS  OF  THE  COAST 

The  Rivers  of  the  Coast  are  with  one  exception  of  compara- 
tively slight  importance. 

The  Santiago  River  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
Amazon  tributary  of  that  name),  a  short  distance  from  the 
Colombian  border,  is  formed  by  several  large  streams,  and 
has  many  tributaries,  receiving  its  waters  from  high  in  the 


ECUADOR  127 

West  Cordillera.  Some  of  the  lower  reaches  are  navigable 
for  canoes  and  steam  launches. 

The  Esmeraldas  River,  second  in  importance  to  the 
Guayas,  rises  a  few  miles  north  of  Quito  in  the  high  plateau 
region,  from  which,  breaking  through  the  West  Cordillera, 
it  descends  to  the  coast.  While  not  navigable  for  steamers 
because  of  the  swift  current,  it  may  be  ascended  by  canoes 
for  more  than  60  miles.  With  a  great  number  of  tributaries 
it  drains  a  very  large  mountain  area  as  well  as  a  slightly 
smaller  region  of  lowland. 

The  Guayas  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  river 
system  on  the  entire  west  coast,  and  the  only  one  admit- 
ting much  navigation.  It  drains  and  irrigates  a  large  region, 
14,000  square  miles,  between  the  great  Andes  and  the  low 
coastal  hills.  This  section  has  been  called  the  most  fertile 
belt  of  tropical  America.  Below  the  Island  of  Puna,  the 
river  is  lost  in  the  Gulf;  above,  it  has  much  the  character 
of  an  estuary  up  to  the  city  of  Guayaquil,  33  miles,  where 
it  has  a  width  of  more  than  a  mile.  Not  far  above  the  city, 
the  river  loses  its  name  at  the  confluence  of  the  Daule  and 
Bodegas.  These  two  have  other  names,  as  do  their  tribu- 
taries also.  The  principal  branches  of  the  Bodegas,  which 
is  known  also  as  the  Babahoyo,  are  the  Yaguachi  or  Chimbo, 
the  Vinces  or  Quevado,  and  the  Calamara  or  Sapotal;  the 
Daule  farther  west,  also  called  the  Balzar,  is  about  130 
miles  long,  not  counting  its  windings.  In  its  upper  part  it 
receives  the  Grande  and  Peripe  Rivers,  and  lower  down  a 
number  of  streams  and  ester os  or  canals. 

CLIMATE 

The  climate  of  the  several  sections,  as  in  Colombia  and 
Venezuela,  varies  chiefly  on  account  of  the  altitude,  though 
in  places  affected  also  by  other  causes  obvious  or  hidden. 
The  coastal  region  is  warm  with  a  mean  temperature  of 
82.4°,  but  with  variation  in  humidity  and  rainfall.  South 


128  THE  WEST  COAST 

of  the  equator  the  coast  is  arid  with  little  rain,  except  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil ;  but  farther  north  in  the 
Province  of  Esmeraldas  there  is  rain  and  luxuriant  vege- 
tation, as  along  the  Colombian  littoral.  Towards  the  moun- 
tains, the  climate  though  warmer  is  agreeable  in  the  dry 
season. 

The  mountains  which  approach  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guayaquil  condense  the  moisture  of  the  trade  winds  from 
the  east,  causing  plenty  of  rain,  sometimes  too  much;  the 
humidity  is  excessive.  Guayaquil,  average  temperature  80°, 
has  been  notoriously  unhealthful.  The  condition,  however, 
was  due  more  to  lack  of  sanitation  than  to  the  climate  itself. 
We  know  of  the  wonderful  change  at  Panama ;  but  at  Guaya- 
quil, partly  no  doubt  because  of  several  revolutions  and 
financial  difficulties,  yellow  fever  and  other  diseases  have 
long  been  prevalent.  Happily  yellow  fever  was  eradicated 
under  the  supervision  of  General  Gorgas,  but  bubonica  and 
small  pox  may  still  exist.  Recently  contracts  have  been 
placed  for  sanitation,  sewers,  paving,  and  other  improve- 
ments, and  something  is  already  accomplished. 

In  some  sections  there  are  two  rainy  and  two  dry  sea- 
sons a  year,  in  others  it  is  liable  to  rain  at  any  time.  At 
Guayaquil  the  rainy  season  is  from  December  to  April  in- 
clusive, or  longer,  the  remainder  of  the  year  being  dry.  In 
Ecuador  the  dry  season  though  the  cooler  is  called  verano  or 
summer,  while  the  warmer  rainy  months  are  called  invierno  or 
winter. 

The  climate  of  the  Ecuadorian  Highlands  may  be  called 
healthful,  with  varying  temperatures  according  to  the  alti- 
tude and  exposure  to  the  wind.  On  the  east  side  of  the 
mountains  the  precipitation  is  greater  than  on  the  west 
side,  as  along  the  entire  Cordilleras,  except  in  southern  Chile. 
The  snow  line  varies  from  14,000  feet  to  15,650  and  more, 
the  difference  depending  chiefly  upon  the  amount  of  pre- 
cipitation in  the  various  localities.  As  the  dwellings  in 
these  regions  have  no  artificial  heat  they  are  uncomfortable 


ECUADOR  129 

much  of  the  time  for  Americans,  accustomed  to  warm 
houses.  A  similar  condition  prevails  in  all  the  cooler  sec- 
tions of  South  America,  the  natives  being  indifferent  to  a 
temperature  that  would  be  discomfort  to  most  of  us.  When 
it  is  really  too  cold  for  them  they  put  on  overcoats,  furs, 
ponchos,  and  even  hats  in  the  house.  In  general  in  the 
Inter- Andine  region  between  6000  and  11,000  feet  altitude 
the  annual  temperature  is  from  64°  to  68°  with  frequent 
variations.  At  any  season  rain  in  the  afternoon  is  common, 
and  in  the  summer  high  winds  make  the  paramos  often  dan- 
gerous. The  high  death  rate  among  the  working  people  and 
Indians  is  due  more  to  bad  living  conditions  than  to  the  cli- 
mate. Leprosy  is  fairly  common;  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
malaria  and  typhoid  fever.  Tuberculosis  is  unknown  but 
catarrhal  complaints  are  prevalent.  Persons  coming  up  from 
the  lowlands  frequently  suffer  from  mountain  sickness,  soroche, 
though  less  than  where  the  railroads  reach  a  higher  elevation. 
In  the  Trans-Andine  section  the  lower  region  has  two 
wet  and  two  dry  seasons,  the  most  rain  being  from  the  end 
of  February  to  the  middle  of  June,  another  period  is  from 
the  middle  of  October  to  January ;  but  there  is  rain  in  every 
month.  On  the  mountain  slopes  the  dry  season  is  from 
November  to  April. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
ECUADOR:  CAPITAL,  PROVINCES,  CHIEF  CITIES 

THE  CAPITAL 

Quito,  capital  of  Ecuador,  population  100,000,  altitude 
9348  feet,  has  a  world  wide  reputation  as  the  city  on  or 
under  the  equator.  It  is  within  a  quarter  of  a  degree.  In- 
teresting historically  and  on  account  of  its  unusual  and 
beautiful  location,  it  is  backward  in  many  ways.  There  are 
fine  Government  buildings  and  churches,  hotels  said  to  be 
fair,  cultured  people,  many  Indians,  recently  a  tramway. 
Lately  sewers  and  paving  have  been  authorized.  The  cli- 
mate is  considered  good  with  a  temperature  of  from  40°  to 
70°;  a  half  day's  journey  will  bring  one  to  a  sultry  valley 
with  tropical  vegetation ;  hence  every  kind  of  fruit  and 
vegetable  is  in  the  market. 

PROVINCES 

Esmeraldas,  the  most  northern  of  the  coastal  Provinces 
of  Ecuador,  thus  bordering  on  Colombia,  has  at  the  east 
Carchi,  Imbabura,  and  Pichincha.  Although  its  natural 
riches  have  hitherto  received  less  attention  than  they  de- 
serve, it  has  excellent  prospects  for  the  future.  The  region 
is  well  watered  and  the  vegetation  rich.  Near  the  boundary, 
the  large  bay,  Ancon  de  Sardinas,  with  its  estuaries  is 
navigable  for  small  steamers  and  launches.  Now  difficult  of 
access  for  large  vessels  on  account  of  shoals  and  sand  banks 
it  might  with  dredging  afford  them  safe  anchorage. 

Farther  south  at  the  mouth  of  the  Esmeraldas  River, 
Esmeraldas,  capital  of  the  Province,  population  about  6000, 

130 


ECUADOR  131 

is  a  port  of  call  for  some  of  the  steamers  from  Panama  to 
Guayaquil.  A  sand  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  compels 
them  to  anchor  well  outside.  Besides  coast  settlements, 
there  are  villages  at  the  junction  of  the  affluents  with  the 
larger  streams,  and  occasional  haciendas  along  the  banks.  The 
Province  extends  far  back  into  the  Andean  foothills. 

Manabi  on  the  south  is  more  hilly  than  Esmeraldas,  but 
has  smaller  rivers  and  less  humidity  and  rain.  Part  of  the 
long  stretch  of  sea  coast  is  rather  dry.  The  lowland  Prov- 
ince of  Guayas  at  the  south  runs  up  also  on  the  east  with 
Pichincha  farther  north.  The  Bay  of  Caraquez,  on  which 
is  a  port  of  the  same  name,  with  dredging  would  become  an 
excellent  harbor.  A  fertile  country  lies  at  the  back.  Just 
north  of  Cape  San  Lorenzo  is  the  Bay  of  Manta;  the  city 
at  the  south  end,  Manta,  is  the  chief  port  of  the  Province. 

Portoviejo,  the  capital,  a  city  of  some  10,000,  is  15  miles 
up  the  Portoviejo  River.  At  the  foot  of  a  hill  1500  feet 
high  is  Montecristi,  a  village,  the  name  of  which  is  familiar 
to  those  conversant  with  the  Panama  hat  industry ;  Jipijapa, 
of  like  reputation,  is  near.  When  a  hat  purchased  at  Paita 
was  called  by  a  dealer  a  Montecristi,  it  was  a  high  but  well 
merited  compliment.  Ivory  nuts,  rubber,  and  agriculture 
are  other  industries. 

Guayas,  the  largest  of  all  the  Provinces,  borders  on  the 
Pacific  south  of  Manabi,  as  well  as  on  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil. 
El  Oro  is  at  the  south ;  Azuay,  Canar,  and  Los  Rios  are  east. 
The  Province  includes  the  most  western  point  of  Ecuador, 
Santa  Elena,  with  the  bay  at  the  north;  Ballenita  on  this 
bay,  port  of  the  town  Santa  Elena,  is  the  landing  place  of 
the  West  Coast  cables.  In  this  vicinity  petroleum  wells 
have  been  attempted  on  a  small  scale.  More  important  in- 
dustries at  present  are  the  agricultural,  pastoral,  and  forestal. 
Panama  hats  are  made  and  fishing  is  important.  Plan- 
tations of  cacao,  coffee,  and  sugar  cane,  and  many  varieties 
of  fruit  trees  are  found  along  the  rivers,  and  some  cattle 
are  raised.  The  Island  Puna  is  included  in  the  Province. 


132  THE  WEST  COAST 

It  is  well  wooded;  timber  and  cattle  raising  are  the  chief 
industries  of  the  200  inhabitants. 

Guayaquil,  the  capital  of  the  Province,  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial city  of  the  Republic. 

Los  Rios,  north  and  east  of  Guayas,  and  west  of  Bolivar, 
partakes  of  the  characteristics  of  the  former;  a  lowland 
region  with  fertile  cacao  lands,  many  rivers,  and  several 
towns  busy  with  interior  commerce.  Cattle  breeding,  and 
timber  extraction  are  important. 

El  Oro,  the  most  southern  of  the  coastal  provinces,  thus 
bordering  on  Tumbes,  Peru,  with  Loja  also  on  the  south  and 
east,  and  Azuay  northeast,  extends  into  the  sierra  region, 
as  here  the  range  in  Ecuador  comes  nearest  to  the  Pacific ; 
one  peak  is  over  13,000  feet  high.  Along  the  shore  are  man- 
grove swamps  and  salt  plains. 

Machala,  the  capital,  a  little  farther  back,  is  near  one  of 
the  famous  cacao  sections.  Along  the  many  streams  and 
ester os  back  of  the  mangrove  swamps  are  sabanas  1-3  miles 
wide,  excellent  for  cattle ;  then  come  the  cultivated  lands,  sandy 
soil  overlaid  by  rich  earth  where  cacao  grows  wild,  and  where 
other  plants  like  bananas  and  coffee  flourish.  The  lower  slopes 
of  the  Cordillera  up  to  3300  feet  are  also  favorable  to  tropical 
culture.  Fisheries  are  important  and  in  the  Zaruma  Hoya  or 
Basin  is  gold  mining. 

Loja  on  the  east,  and  extending  farther  south,  has  Peru 
on  both  south  and  west,  the  precise  boundary  line  still  un- 
certain; the  Oriente  is  on  the  east.  Traversed  by  the  Cor- 
dillera Real,  it  has  hot  and  cold  regions,  with  pleasing  towns 
and  bleak  spots.  The  capital,  Loja,  altitude  7300  feet,  is 
quite  a  city  with  14,000  population. 

The  Andean  Provinces  farther  north  are  largely  similar 
to  each  other  in  production  and  characteristics. 

Azuay,  where  there  are  gold  washings  and  hat  making, 
has  the  ordinary  agriculture  and  cattle  raising  of  the  high- 
lands. 

The  important  town  of  Cuenca,  altitude  8465  feet,  is  the 


ECUADOR  133 

capital,  with  a  population  of  40,000,  the  third  city  in  Ecuador. 
Seventy  miles  southeast  of  Guayaquil,  it  is  south  of  the 
present  railway  system,  carrying  on  its  traffic  with  the  out- 
side world  over  mountain  ranges  by  means  of  bridle  paths 
only.  It  has  a  few  factories  for  the  making  of  sugar,  woolen 
goods,  pottery,  hats,  and  cheese. 

Canar  follows,  between  Guayas  west  and  Oriente  east. 
It  includes  the  great  knot  of  Azuay  and  its  once  famous 
quicksilver  mines,  now  apparently  exhausted.  From  these, 
the  chief  town,  Azogues,  near  by,  population  9000,  took  its 
name. 

Chimborazo,  as  might  be  supposed,  contains  Ecuador's 
greatest  mountain  of  that  name.  The  Province  is  followed 
at  the  north  by  Tungurahua,  Leon,  Pichincha,  Imbabura,  and 
Carchi,  all  quite  similar,  with  their  rows  of  mountains,  their 
cattle,  textile  industries,  growing  of  cereals,  and  in  the  val- 
leys, sugar  cane  and  cotton. 

Tulcan  in  Carchi,  and  Ibarra  in  Imbabura  are  mountain 
towns,  which  have  some  commercial  intercourse  along  the 
plateau  with  Pasto,  Colombia ;  with  this  city  they  will  some 
day  have  rail  connection. 

Bolivar,  the  smallest  Province,  is  off  the  line,  like  Los 
Rios,  being  between  that  Province  and  Chimborazo.  It  has 
the  mountainous  character  and  resources  of  the  latter. 

TERRITORIES 

The  Galapagos  Islands,  though  of  little  importance  at 
present,  may  become  valuable  as  a  commercial  focus  or  as 
a  coaling  station,  since  the  group  lies  almost  in  the  path 
of  vessels  from  the  Panama  Canal  to  Australia.  Thirteen 
in  number,  the  Islands  on  or  near  the  equator  have  an  area 
of  nearly  3000  miles.  Except  Chaves  Island  they  are  pri- 
vately owned.  The  inhabitants  are  few:  a  small  colony  on 
Charles  or  Santa  Maria  Island,  others  on  Chatham  or  San 
Cristobal,  and  on  Albemarle.  On  Chatham  is  a  sugar  plan- 


134  THE  WEST  COAST 

tation  with  a  factory  for  refining  sugar  and  distilling  alcohol. 
Three  million  pounds  of  sugar  are  produced,  and  if  there 
were  a  market  40,000  gallons  of  alcohol  might  be,  instead 
of  the  3500  at  present.  A  coffee  plantation  of  320,000  trees 
yields  about  300,000  pounds  of  coffee  yearly.  Water  has 
been  piped  five  miles  and  a  Decauville  railway  built.  Hene- 
quen  plants  have  been  set  out  to  furnish  material  for  the 
needed  bags  and  twine.  The  cattle  industry  and  fishing 
are  of  importance;  codfish  and  lobsters  are  abundant. 

The  Islands  are  especially  distinguished  for  the  giant 
tortoises  which  are  said  to  live  500  years  and  sometimes 
weigh  600  pounds.  None  such  are  on  the  main  land.  They 
yield  excellent  oil,  have  good  flesh  and  eggs,  but  are  dimin- 
ishing in  numbers  and  should  receive  protection.  A  propo- 
sition to  lease  the  Islands  to  the  United  States  Government 
in  1911  was  rejected  by  Ecuador. 

The  Oriente  embraces  a  large  forest  region,  which  con- 
tains the  varieties  of  trees  and  other  conditions  such  as  are 
found  in  the  forests  of  Peru  and  Colombia;  but  up  to  this 
time  there  has  been  little  exploitation  of  its  resources.  Quite 
recently  the  possibilities  of  petroleum  development  have 
been  investigated.  A  concession  for  exploration  and  for 
the  drilling  of  wells  in  an  area  of  nearly  10,000  square  miles 
has  been  granted  to  the  Leonard  Exploration  Company, 
American. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

ECUADOR:    PORTS    AND    INTERIOR 
TRANSPORTATION 

PORTS 

Guayaquil.  The  most  important  and  frequently  visited 
place  in  Ecuador  is  the  coast  city  of  Guayaquil,  the  chief 
port  of  entry  through  which  communication  is  had  with 
most  of  the  interior  districts.  The  entrance  to  the  port 
from  the  Gulf  is  by  way  of  the  Jambeli  Channel  south  of 
the  island,  Puna,  on  which  the  quarantine  station  is  located, 
and  where  a  pilot  is  taken  for  the  30  mile  journey  up  the 
river.  Guayaquil  is  accessible  by  ordinary  ocean  steamers 
drawing  no  more  than  22  feet  of  water.  Larger  vessels  may 
anchor  at  Puna  and  there  transfer  passengers  or  cargo  to 
boats  or  lighters.  It  is  now  proposed  to  dredge  the  river 
as  far  as  Guayaquil.  Ships  do  not  come  to  the  docks,  which 
for  a  mile  and  a  half  line  the  water  front  of  Guayaquil.  As 
in  general  along  the  entire  coast,  goods  are  transferred  to 
lighters  and  passengers  to  rowboats  or  launches  in  order  to 
reach  the  city. 

Founded  in  1535,  Santiago  de  Guayaquil  has  suffered 
many  calamities :  sacked  by  buccaneers,  more  or  less  de- 
stroyed by  conflagrations,  and  shaken  by  earthquakes.  From 
the  water  the  town  has  a  pleasing  appearance,  which  is  con- 
stantly improving.  The  buildings  of  wood  and  plaster,  which 
appear  quite  massive,  present  the  usual  variety ;  many  con- 
tain first  class  shops  where  almost  everything  is  purchas- 
able. The  water  supply,  which  is  to  be  largely  increased, 
coming  from  the  Cordillera,  53  miles,  passes  under  the  river 
to  a  reservoir  on  the  northern  hills.  There  are  electric  lights 
and  tramways,  cable  communication  by  telegraph  from 

135 


136  THE  WEST  COAST 

Santa  Elena,  also  wireless,  several  manufacturing  plants 
for  local  needs,  such  as  gas,  ice,  chocolate,  etc.,  and  a  ship- 
yard where  vessels  are  built  or  repaired.  The  tide  here  is 
swift  and  strong  (8  knots  an  hour),  both  up  and  down,  so 
that  all  boats  take  advantage  of  it  in  going  either  way ;  the 
fiat  boats  manned  by  natives  bring  down  provisions,  vege- 
tables, and  fruit,  or  go  below  to  fish,  without  exertion  on 
their  part,  and  with  little  if  any  returning.  The  city  is  on 
a  low  plain  with  a  salt  estuary  at  the  back.  This  could 
easily  be  made  into  an  excellent  quiet  harbor,  with  docks 
approachable  by  steamers,  an  advantage  which  would  doubt- 
less expedite  the  gradual  increase  of  commerce. 

Minor  Ports  are  Esmeraldas,  Bahia,  Manta,  Cayo, 
Machalilla,  Manglar  Alto,  Ballenita. 

RAILWAYS 

Guayaquil-Quito  Railway.  The  American  built  railway 
to  Quito,  290  miles  long,  opened  in  June,  1908,  begins  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river  at  a  place  called  Duran,  to 
which  passengers  are  ferried  by  the  company.  Here  are 
the  railway  offices,  repair  shops,  and  warehouses.  The  rail- 
way traverses  a  fine  country  where  sugar  cane,  coffee, 
cacao,  bananas,  and  plantains  are  cultivated,  to  Bucay,  nearly 
1000  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera,  57 
miles  from  Duran.  A  steep  climb  here  begins  with  at  times 
a  4^4  per  cent  grade.  Above  Huigra  at  4000  feet,  where  the 
upland  Indian  in  poncho  appears,  is  a  section  where  land- 
slides and  washouts  are  common.  Here  is  a  famous  switch- 
back where  the  train  backs  up  the  face  of  a  precipice  on  a 
ledge  cut  in  the  rock.  At  the  Alausi  Loop,  besides  a  fine 
view  of  a  splendid  river  gorge,  the  system  of  terrace  culti- 
vation is  well  seen,  every  available  foot  being  thus  employed 
up  to  12,000  feet. 

There  is  a  slight  descent  to  Riobamba,  altitude  9200, 
where  the  night  is  spent.  On  this  healthful  plateau  wheat  is 


ECUADOR  137 

cultivated,  in  increasing  quantity  since  the  coming  of  the 
railway.  Beyond  Riobamba,  which  is  noted  for  its  market, 
made  picturesque  by  hundreds  of  Indians  from  the  sur- 
rounding country,  the  highest  point  of  the  railway  is 
reached,  the  Chimborazo  Pass,  11,841  feet.  A  descent  fol- 
lows to  Ambato,  altitude  8550  feet.  The  climate  is  more 
equable  than  most  of  the  other  basins  enjoy,  and  the  "Fair" 
held  here  is  the  most  famous  in  Ecuador.  In  the  Lata- 
cunga  Valley  are  good  pasture  lands  with  cattle,  and  irri- 
gated fields  where  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the  temperate 
zone  are  raised.  At  a  height  almost  equal  to  that  of  the 
Chimborazo  Pass,  the  road  crosses  the  base  of  Cotopaxi, 
from  whose  crest  the  smoke  is  ever  curling.  The  fertile 
valley  of  Machachi  beyond,  with  its  rows  on  right  and  left 
of  famous  volcanoes,  often  covered  with  green  up  to  the 
eternal  snows,  presents  a  picture  unique  in  all  the  world. 
The  Chillo  Valley  near,  contains  cotton  and  woolen  mills 
run  by  water  power,  manufacturing  cheap  cloth  for  the  use 
of  the  natives.  Quito  has  for  some  time  been  the  terminus 
of  the  railway.  Owing  to  engineering  difficulties  its  cost 
was  so  great  that  it  has  not  been  a  paying  proposition ;  with 
settled  conditions  good  returns  are  hoped  for.  Wood  has 
been  used  as  fuel  but  a  change  to  oil  is  expected. 

Additional  railways  are  planned,  and  construction  work 
is  going  on  at  several  points.  The  line  is  being  prolonged 
from  Quito  to  Ibarra,  105  miles,  another  link  in  the  Pan 
American  chain.  Several  other  roads  are  expected  to  climb 
to  Quito  from  the  coast.  The  first  of  these  to  be  completed 
is  the  Esmeraldas  Railway  from  the  port  San  Lorenzo  125 
miles  to  Ibarra..  Construction  is  well  advanced. 

Another  railroad  of  186  miles  planned  from  Bahia  de 
Caraquez  is  now  operated  to  Chone,  20  miles  only.  Its  com- 
pletion may  follow  that  of  Esmeraldas.  One  more  is  talked 
of  from  Ancon  de  Sardinas,  all  to  extend  to  Quito.  To  the 
east  connection  is  planned  with  the  Amazon  Basin  by  means 
of  a  railway  from  Ambato  to  San  Antonio  on  the  Curaray. 


138  THE  WEST  COAST 

River,  from  which  steam  navigation  would  be  made  by  the 
Curaray  and  the  Napo  to  the  Amazon.  From  Ambato  20 
miles  have  been  constructed.  From  Sibambe,  a  little  below 
Alausi,  a  railway  is  begun  to  Cuenca,  125  miles.  A  railway 
94  miles  long  from  Guayaquil  to  Santa  Elena  is  half  finished, 
1921.  The  Government  of  Ecuador  is  said  to  have  author- 
ized a  concession  for  the  construction  of  a  railway  from 
Puerto  Bolivar  on  the  Pacific  to  Borja,  just  below  the  Pongo 
de  Manseriche  on  the  Maranon. 

OTHER  MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 

Aside  from  the  few  railways,  water  ways  and  mule  trails 
are  the  means  of  communication.  The  rivers,  and  the  estu- 
aries, tide  water  channels,  are  of  great  importance,  even  streams 
practicable  only  for  canoes.  On  the  Ecuador  littoral  600  miles 
altogether  are  deemed  navigable,  these  at  present  of  greater 
use  than  the  Amazon  tributaries,  which  in  the  future  will  have 
a  development  of  assured  value. 

On  the  water  ways  of  the  Pacific  system  the  steamboat, 
the  flat  boat  or  chata,  the  raft,  and  the  canoe,  all  have  their 
place.  Steamboats  of  from  25  to  125  tons  serve  the  Guayas 
River  System  above  Guayaquil,  this  including  nearly  a  dozen 
streams  or  estuaries,  in  winter  penetrating  to  the  foot  of  the 
Cordilleras.  If  the  natural  water  ways  were  properly  de- 
veloped and  a  few  artificial  canals  were  opened,  a  much  larger 
field  of  the  richest  territory  would  be  accessible.  The  chatas, 
boats  without  sails  carrying  from  4  to  50  tons,  are  of  lighter 
draught,  the  rafts  too  are  important.  Made  of  bamboo  and 
balsa  wood  they  are  very  light,  a  single  log  40  feet  long  being 
able  to  support  2  tons.  Rafts  of  20  or  30  logs,  in  part  roofed 
over,  carry  the  entire  family  as  well  as  heavy  freight.  Thanks 
to  the  strong  tide  on  the  rivers  they  float  down  stream  very 
rapidly,  returning  with  a  load  up  stream  at  turn  of  tide,  more 
slowly,  but  without  additional  propulsion,  far  above  Guaya- 
jquil.  In  this  way  48  miles  a  day  may  be  covered.  Canoes 


ECUADOR  139 

of  course  have  the  same  advantage  and  steamboats  also,  these 
being  often  delayed  at  Puna  or  Guayaquil  to  have  the  benefit 
of  the  tide  which  runs  8  miles  an  hour.  The  canoes,  which  are 
able  to  carry  from  500  to  50,000  pounds  of  freight,  bring  from 
remote  places  valuable  cargoes  of  cacao  or  other  stuff  and 
return  laden  with  supplies.  Few  roads  or  trails  exist  in  this 
section,  but  there  are  some,  available  in  the  dry  season,  espe- 
cially in  the  better  populated  districts  of  Guayas.  A  trail 
through  the  jungle  called  a  trocha,  made  with  axe  and  machete, 
is  soon  overgrown  again. 

In  the  Andine  section  there  is  one  good  cart  road  leading 
from  Quito  115  miles  south.  The  trails  to  the  east  are  five  in 
number;  the  most  frequented,  the  one  from  the  Pichincha 
Province  (Quito)  to  the  pueblos  or  villages  of  the  Napo  (a 
high  road  is  now  being  constructed),  one  from  Tungurahua 
farther  south  through  Banos  to  Canelas ;  one  from  Chimbo- 
razo  to  Macas;  one  from  Azuay  to  Gualaquiza;  one  from 
Loja  to  Zumba  and  Chita,  and  on  to  Jaen  in  Peru. 

Between  the  plateau  region  and  the  coast,  at  the  north, 
practically  no  communication  exists,  but  farther  down  there 
are  a  number  of  trails.  Thus  there  are  roads  to  Latacunga 
and  Ambato  from  the  lower  valleys  west,  several  extend 
to  points  above  from  Babahoya  or  Bodegas,  the  capital  of 
Los  Rios  and  the  chief  port  of  the  interior  on  the  river 
which  also  enjoys  the  two  names.  Bodegas  is  36  miles  up 
from  Guayaquil  and  is  reached  by  a  strong  tide  so  that 
river  steamers  come  up  on  the  flood  in  8  hours  and  even 
go  higher  in  winter  when  the  rivers  are  full.  It  is  from 
Bodegas  that  interior  traffic  begins  to  points  not  easily 
accessible  from  the  railway. 

From  Naranjal  and  Machala,  coastal  towns  of  El  Oro  at 
the  extreme  south,  roads  lead  to  Cuenca  and  other  interior 
towns;  other  roads  farther  south  go  to  Loja,  and  to  Tumbes 
in  Peru.  All  of  these  roads  are  merely  mule  or  bridle  trails, 
no  wagon  roads  existing.  In  the  Andine  region  there  are 
naturally  additional  trails  from  one  point  to  another,  many 


140  THE  WEST  COAST 

reaching  altitudes  of  13,000  or  14,000  feet,  crossing  chasms 
or  rivers  on  swinging  bridges  three  feet  wide,  with  no  more 
guard  than  a  single  wire  if  any,  and  passing  along  slippery 
dangerous  slopes,  where  the  meeting  of  a  loaded  mule  train 
may  well  excite  terror ;  a  rock  wall  on  one  side  and  a  preci- 
pice on  the  other,  often  leaving  small  space  for  passage. 
Scenes  of  beauty  may  repay  some  persons  for  the  discom- 
forts and  risks  endured,  but  not  the  average  tourist,  nor 
will  sufficient  business  reward  the  commercial  traveler. 

The  Leonard  Exploration  Company  is  to  make  caminos 
and  later  cart  roads  into  the  Oriente,  where  its  oil  wells  may 
be  located. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
ECUADOR:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

AGRICULTURE 

The  chief  productions,  industries,  and  exports  of  Ecuador 
are,  as  might  be  expected,  agricultural  or  forestal  in  char- 
acter. 

Cacao.  The  cultivation  of  cacao  is  by  far  the  most 
important  industry  of  Ecuador,  the  amount  exported  in 
1910  having  nearly  ten  times  the  value  of  any  other  com- 
modity. The  shrub  grows  wild  in  many  tracts  where  it  is 
necessary  merely  to  cut  out  other  growth,  leaving  such  tall 
trees  as  may  be  desirable  to  shade  the  cacao  shrubs.  It 
remains  only  to  weed  the  land  once  a  year,  to  give  occa- 
sional prunings,  and  to  harvest  the  fruit.  Besides  these 
natural  and  irregular  plantations  many  have  been  prepared 
by  clearing  a  suitable  tract  except  for  the  required  shade 
trees.  In  holes  two  or  three  yards  apart  the  fresh  cacao 
seeds  are  sowed ;  they  sprout  and  grow  rapidly.  The  plants 
must  be  sheltered  from  the  sun,  maize  or  yucca  serving  this 
purpose  for  two  years,  or  if  the  banana  plant  is  used  it  will 
suffice  for  6  or  7  years  till  the  cacao  comes  into  bearing. 
By  this  time  other  shade  trees  which  may  have  been  planted 
will  be  large  enough  to  serve,  and  the  banana  plants  are 
cut  down.  The  plantation  will  then  last  indefinitely,  for 
when  the  old  trees  die  at  the  age  of  60  or  80  years  a  new 
growth  will  have  appeared  to  continue  the  work.  The  prin- 
cipal harvest  is  in  March  and  April,  but  the  fruit  may  be 
gathered  during  the  entire  year.  The  pod  containing  the 
seeds  is  left  on  the  ground  a  day  or  two  after  cutting,  then 

141 


142  THE  WEST  COAST 

the  seeds  are  taken  out  and  put  in  the  sweating  house  for 
fermentation,  which  gives  a  superior  color,  flavor,  and 
aroma.  Drying  follows.  The  cacao  is  rich  in  fats,  albu- 
minoids, caffeine,  and  theobromine.  In  preparation  for 
cocoa  the  fat  is  removed  and  used  for  cocoa  butter;  it  is 
retained  for  chocolate,  which  is  therefore  richer  than  cocoa 
and  for  many  persons  is  less  digestible.  A  large  area  is  now 
under  cultivation  but  more  land  is  available.  The  best  plan- 
tations are  at  an  altitude  of  650-2600  feet.  Twelve  per  cent 
is  an  ordinary  return  on  an  investment,  and  at  1918  prices 
from  15  to  25  per  cent.  It  is  the  safest  and  easiest  crop 
of  the  country,  and  foreign  investors  have  engaged  in  the 
industry.  The  districts  south  of  Guayaquil  yield  especially 
fine  crops,  though  cacao  flourishes  on  any  of  the  hot  humid 
lowlands.  With  more  scientific  culture  the  quality  might 
probably  be  improved,  as  it  is  said  to  be  hardly  equal  to  the 
best  raised  elsewhere. 

Other  products  are  cotton,  sugar,  maize,  tobacco,  coffee, 
tagua,  rice,  yucca  (known  also  as  cassava  and  mandioca), 
bananas,  indigo,  rubber,  quinine,  bread  fruit,  etc.,  all  grow- 
ing up  to  3000  feet  and  some  much  higher,  but  of  these  tagua, 
rubber,  1,000,000  pounds,  and  coffee,  crop  7,000,000  pounds, 
in  the  order  named,  are  the  only  important  exports. 

Sugar  cane  grows  rapidly  and  many  sections  are  suited 
to  it,  as  also  to  rice,  but  not  enough  of  either  is  produced 
to  supply  the  home  market,  though  the  sugar  output 
amounts  to  16,000,000  pounds  and  much  cane  is  turned  into 
aguardiente  or  rum.  Suitable  land  is  open  in  Esmeraldas  and 
Manabi.  In  the  Guayas  Valley  large  possibilities  exist  for  ex- 
tending the  rice  industry. 

Tobacco  is  cultivated  in  low  lying  river  lands  and  plains ; 
that  of  the  Daule  River  with  culture  might  rival  the  Havana ; 
that  of  Esmeraldas  is  noted  for  its  agreeable  aroma. 

For  the  poor  people  along  the  shore  the  plantain  is  the 
staff  of  life,  being  eaten  green,  half  ripe  or  ripe,  cooked  or 
raw.  For  the  Indians  above,  maize  is  the  staple  article  of 


ECUADOR  143 

food,  chiefly  eaten  dry  and  toasted,  and  much  used  by  others 
as  a  green  vegetable. 

Coffee,  which  grows  up  to  5000  feet,  is  raised  for  export 
on  the  large  plantations  in  the  lower  zone.  It  is  said  to 
be  of  quality  superior  to  the  Brazilian  and  brings  a  high 
price.  Tropical  fruits  abound  such  as  pomegranates,  paltas, 
chirimoias,  granadlllas,  oranges,  grape-fruit,  etc.,  some  of  which 
are  exported  to  Peru  and  elsewhere. 

On  the  higher  lands  wheat  and  barley  are  cultivated,  also 
maize  in  sheltered  places  as  well  as  in  the  lowlands.  Potatoes 
thrive  in  the  sierra,  and  other  temperate  zone  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. Alfalfa  is  extensively  raised  wherever  possible  as 
fodder  for  traffic  animals. 


FORESTRY 

Tagua  and  rubber  are  more  forest  than  cultivated  prod- 
ucts, though  a  few  plantations  of  each  have  been  set  out.  In 
Western  Ecuador  rubber  is  produced  by  the  caucho  tree,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  these  by  cutting  down, 
they  are  now  to  be  found  in  remote  districts  only.  The  rubber 
of  the  finer  class,  the  hevea,  is  obtained  from  the  Amazon 
Basin  only.  The  forests  contain  many  valuable  plants  and 
trees  of  which  little  use  is  made  save  by  the  Indians  for  their 
huts  and  for  other  necessities. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  FISHERIES 

The  cattle  industry  is  in  a  backward  state,  and  the  wool 
of  the  highland  sheep  is  poor.  It  is  used  locally,  a  little  ex- 
ported ;  also  hides.  The  quality  of  these  is  called  very  good. 
Goat  and  alligator  skins  are  also  exported.  The  llama, 
so  much  employed  as  a  beast  of  burden  farther  south,  is 
little  used  in  Ecuador,  in  one  or  two  Provinces  only.  A 
few  horses  and  mules  are  exported. 


144  THE  WEST  COAST 

A  great  variety  of  fish  is  found  along  the  coast  including 
oysters  and  lobsters.  The  industry  is  important,  fish  form- 
ing a  material  part  of  the  food  supply  for  this  region.  Some 
pearls  are  found  near  the  island  La  Plata,  off  the  coast  of 
Manabi ;  the  industry  near  Manta  was  suspended  on  account 
of  the  ferocious  sharks  which  infest  these  waters. 

MINING 

Ecuador,  so  far  as  is  known,  is  the  poorest  in  minerals 
of  any  of  the  Pacific  Coast  countries.  Copper,  iron,  lead, 
quicksilver  and  platinum  exist,  but  apparently  not  in  com- 
mercial quantities.  In  the  province  of  Loja  are  copper 
deposits,  but  limited  operation  has  been  unsuccessful. 

Petroleum  has  better  prospects.  Bituminous  seams  with 
fair  quantities  of  oil  have  been  located  in  the  north,  but  more 
favorable  developments  would  naturally  be  expected  in  the 
same  line  with  the  rich  oil  fields  of  Peru.  In  El  Oro  near 
the  town  of  Santa  Rosa  there  is  said  to  be  an  oil  field 
with  good  prospects,  but  the  principal  deposits  so  far  dis- 
covered are  more  nearly  in  line  with  the  Zorritos  and 
Lobitos  districts.  The  field,  extending  about  6  miles  north 
and  south  and  20  miles  inland,  is  close  to  the  coast,  90  miles 
west  of  Guayaquil,  in  desert  country  near  the  port  of  Santa 
Elena  and  750  miles  from  Panama.  A  small  oil  fountain 
with  considerable  gas  indicates  that  deep  drilling  would 
bring  results.  The  25,000  barrels  now  secured  annually  are 
obtained  by  digging  small  holes  down  50  feet  to  a  layer 
of  impermeable  sandstone  which  is  impregnated  with  oil. 
The  life  of  these  wells  is  from  3  months  to  3  years.  A 
deep  well  bored  by  an  Anglo-French  Company  contains  oil 
of  a  high  quality.  There  is  connection  with  Guayaquil  by  a 
fairly  good  automobile  road  and  by  telephone  and  tele- 
graph. A  railway  to  Santa  Elena  and  Ballenita  is  in  con- 
struction. Petroleum  claims  have  recently  been  denounced 
in  the  Canton  of  Quito,  Province  of  Pichincha.  Indica- 


ECUADOR  145 

tions  of  petroleum  in  the  Oriente  have  been  sufficient  to 
warrant  the  Leonard  Exploration  Company  in  securing  a 
concession  of  nearly  10,000  square  miles  east  of  the  Andes 
from  Tulcan  to  Riobamba  in  which  to  explore  and  drill 
for  oil. 

Gold.  Of  metals,  gold  mines  only  have  up  to  the  present 
been  profitably  worked;  those  of  Zaruma  in  Southern  Ecua- 
dor have  long  been  known  and  operated.  In  1549  the  towns 
Zaruma  and  Zamora  were  founded  and  mining  was  estab- 
lished. Other  discoveries  followed  attended  by  a  gold  min- 
ing rush  from  Peru ;  but  owing  to  the  greed  of  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Macas,  residing  at  Sevilla,  the  Jivaros  Indians  re- 
belled, destroyed  several  towns,  and  murdered  many  in- 
habitants, so  that  in  later  times  the  mining  has  been  limited 
to  the  placers  of  Esmeraldas  and  the  lodes  of  Zaruma.  In 
recent  years  there  have  been  examinations  and  working  at 
Zaruma  with  some  mismanagement,  but  the  values  are 
considered  proved  and  shipments  have  been  regularly  made, 
to  the  extent  of  $250,000  in  1910.  Placers  have  been  found 
on  the  west  slope  of  the  East  Cordillera  in  Loja  and  Azuay 
with  gravel  from  3  to  6  feet  deep.  The  Collay,  anciently 
worked  by  Indians,  has  alluvium  20-35  feet  thick,  with  gold 
in  grains  and  dust  but  in  small  quantities.  The  placers 
of  the  small  streams  are  believed  to  be  paying  only  as 
worked  individually  by  the  patient  Indian.  In  Esmeraldas 
there  is  platinum  with  the  gold  but  in  too  small  quantities 
to  be  worth  while.  The  mountain  sections  have  good  lodes 
which  might  develop  into  paying  propositions,  but  appear- 
ances are  judged  less  favorable  than  in  some  other  quarters. 

Coal.  Beds  of  coal  are  found  in  several  places  among 
the  mountains,  but  none  have  yet  been  successfully  worked. 
The  Southern  Railway  has  recently  consumed  eucalyptus 
wood,  well  dried,  in  their  locomotives. 

Manganese.  Deposits  are  said  to  exist  near  Pomasqui, 
from  which  it  is  expected  to  ship  200  tons  of  ore  monthly 
to  the  United  States.  Near  San  Antonio  in  Pichincha  a 


146  THE  WEST  COAST 

deposit  from  3  to  9  feet  thick  covers  21,000  square  feet.    The 
ore  runs  from  46  to  53  per  cent  manganese. 


INDUSTRIES 

Panama  Hats.  As  might  be  supposed  the  manufactures 
of  Ecuador  are  slightly  developed,  with  no  articles  save 
Panama  hats  made  for  export.  In  this  they  rank  third,  fol- 
lowing cacao  and  tagua.  The  demand  for  the  hats  has  in- 
creased in  recent  years.  They  are  due  to  the  patient  labor 
of  the  natives.  Made  from  two  different  kinds  of  plants, 
the  paja  toquilla,  and  the  macora,  the  finest  hats  are  from  the 
first,  those  of  average  quality  from  the  second,  from  which 
material  fine  hammocks  are  also  made.  Both  plants  grow  wild 
6-10  feet  high;  but  the  toquilla  is  transplanted,  placed  four 
feet  apart,  and  kept  free  of  weeds.  The  fan  shaped  leaves 
of  the  toquilla  rise  directly  from  the  ground.  Conditions  are 
especially  favorable  to  the  plant  in  Manglar  Alto  in  Manabi, 
but  it  grows  elsewhere  along  the  coast.  The  portions  used  for 
hats  are  separated  before  the  leaves  open,  and  picked  only  in 
certain  weather  conditions.  The  macora  grass  grows  wild  on 
the  hills  and  is  had  for  the  gathering. 

In  Peru  similar  hats  are  made  from  Ecuador  straw.  In 
order  to  prevent  this  a  tax  of  one  sucre  a  kilogram  was 
placed  on  the  export  of  the  straw,  but  without  killing  the 
Peruvian  industry.  The  finest  Ecuadorian  hats,  which  come 
from  Montecristi  and  Jipijapa  in  Manabi,  are  sold  in  Guaya- 
quil at  high  prices,  but  far  less  than  in  New  York. 

A  shoe  factory,  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  breweries,  ice 
plants,  tanneries,  flour  mills,  saw  mills,  etc.,  not  forgetting 
chocolate,  are  locally  important.  Along  the  coast  are  many 
maguey  plants,  from  the  fibre  of  which  to  make  bags  and 
twine  a  profitable  industry  might  be  created.  For  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  paper  factory,  the  Government  proposes,  it  is 
reported,  to  grant  valuable  concessions  to  British  capitalists. 


ECUADOR  147 


INVESTMENTS 

From  the  list  of  Ecuador's  productions  and  exports,  agri- 
culture, especially  cacao,  might  seem  to  offer  favorable  op- 
portunities; to  some  gold  mining  might  appeal  or  the  possi- 
bilities of  petroleum.  For  many  years  engineering  and 
construction  work  of  various  kinds,  including  sanitation, 
must  present  openings  for  capitalists,  and  for  experts  in 
such  matters.  With  forests  so  near  the  coast  saw  mills 
and  lumbering  would  undoubtedly  be  profitable.  Stock  rais- 
ing for  local  requirements  is  a  fair  possibility. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PERU:  AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT,  POPULA- 
TION, ETC 

More  than  a  century  ago,  the  distinguished  scientist, 
Alexander  von  Humboldt,  declared  that  the  country  of  Peru 
would  one  day  become  the  centre  of  the  World's  coloniza- 
tion. It  has  been  called  the  richest  in  natural  resources  of 
any  country  upon  the  globe,  containing  within  its  borders 
every  variety  of  climate  and  of  natural  or  possible  produc- 
tion, together  with  wonderful  fertility  of  soil  and  marvelous 
wealth  in  minerals.  Other  countries  make  a  similar  claim. 
To  decide  the  question  is  impossible.  Without  intimate 
acquaintance  with  all,  even  to  express  an  opinion  would 
seem  an  impertinence. 


Area.  Pending  the  decision  of  certain  boundary  dis- 
putes, the  area  of  this  Republic  can  hardly  be  stated  with 
even  approximate  accuracy,  for  figures  given  vary  over 
200,000  square  miles.  The  territory  claimed  by  the  Govern- 
ment, including  Tacna  and  Arica,  with  a  vast  domain  over 
which  Ecuador  and  Colombia  have  asserted  a  right,  covers 
700,000  square  miles.  Had  all  claims  been  decided  against 
her,  Peru  would  have  fifth  place  in  area  among  the  South 
American  Republics;  but  as  the  arbitrators  of  her  boun- 
daries with  Brazil  and  Bolivia  gave  judgment  largely  in  her 
favor,  she  is  likely  to  remain  fourth  with  at  least  540,000 
square  miles.  With  this  figure  Peru  is  ten  times  the  size  of 

148 


PERU  149 

New  York  State,  and  approximates  the  area  of  the  entire 
Atlantic  slope  of  the  United  States. 

Population.  As  no  census  of  Peru  has  been  taken  for 
many  years  the  population  is  merely  estimated  and  a  variety 
of  figures  is  given.  The  estimate  of  5,800,000  appears  prob- 
able; this  number  would  place  Peru  in  the  third  or  fourth 
rank  according  to  the  figures  assigned  to  Colombia. 

Boundary.  The  boundary  of  the  country  may  be 
slightly  affected  by  the  decision  of  arbitrators;  as  usually 
given,  Peru  has  Ecuador  and  a  little  of  Colombia  on  the 
north,  Brazil  and  Bolivia  east,  Chile  south,  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  west. 

HISTORY 

The  name  of  Peru  is  always  a  reminder  of  the  Incas. 
and  all  but  the  utterly  ignorant  have  heard  the  amazing  tale 
of  the  conquest  of  Peru  by  Pizarro.  A  few  dates  may  here 
be  recalled.  As  early  as  1527,  Francisco  Pizarro,  incited 
by  rumors  of  prodigious  wealth  of  gold  in  a  country  south 
of  Panama,  made  a  voyage  of  exploration  in  which  he 
landed  at  Tumbes  and  proceeded  as  far  as  Trujillo.  Satisfied 
with  his  discoveries  he  returned  to  Spain,  to  procure  a  royal 
warrant  for  an  invasion.  In  1531,  with  Diego  de  Almagro, 
Hernando  de  Luque,  a  priest,  and  subordinates,  he  set  out 
on  his  career  of  conquest.  With  180  men,  67  of  whom  were 
cavalry,  in  1532  he  crossed  the  desert  and  the  first  moun- 
tain range,  then  descending  to  Cajamarca.  How  he  treacher- 
ously seized  and  later  slew  the  Inca  Prince,  Atahuallpa,  in 
spite  of  the  enormous  gold  ransom  which  had  been  fur- 
nished, afterwards  captured  Cuzco,  the  Inca  capital,  and 
in  1535  founded  Lima  on  the  banks  of  the  Rimac  is  a  Twice 
Told  Tale. 

Quarrels  developed  soon  after  the  conquest.  Subsequently 
to  his  return  from  Chile  the  nobler  Almagro  was  executed 
by  order  of  his  associate,  Pizarro,  who  himself  was  assas- 


150  THE  WEST  COAST 

sinated  in  1541  by  former  adherents  of  Almagro.  For  cen-- 
turies  Lima  was  the  seat  of  Spanish  government  in  South 
America  and  the  residence  of  the  Viceroy.  Great  wealth 
of  gold  and  silver  had  been  extorted  from  the  Incas  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ransom  paid  for  Atahuallpa,  and  further  riches 
were  later  obtained  from  mines  by  forced  labor  of  the 
Indians.  Severe  exactions  and  cruelties  excited  one  or  two 
insurrections,  but  in  spite  of  vicissitudes  of  various  kinds 
the  city  of  Lima  was  the  continental  centre  of  wealth  and 
culture  for  generations. 

When  in  1810  the  spirit  of  independence  began  to  mani- 
fest itself  in  the  colonies,  it  had  less  opportunity  for  de- 
velopment in  Peru.  Not  until  San  Martin  came  with  an 
army  from  Chile  in  1820  did  revolutionary  activity  become 
general.  Received  with  great  enthusiasm,  he  was  proclaimed 
Protector  of  Peru.  Her  independence  was  declared  July  28, 
1821,  which  is  the  day  they  celebrate.  General  Bolivar, 
coming  from  the  north  with  an  army,  was  met  by  San 
Martin.  A  disagreement  evidently  occurred,  which  caused 
San  Martin  to  retire  to  Argentina;  subsequently  he  with- 
drew to  Europe.  A  hero  of  the  highest  patriotism,  courage, 
skill,  unselfish  devotion,  and  sterling  character,  the  name  of 
San  Martin  should  be  honored  among  us  as  is  that  of  Wash- 
ington in  South  America.  The  year  following  Bolivar's 
arrival  in  Lima  in  1823,  a  battle  between  royalists  and 
patriots  occurred  on  the  plateau  of  Junin,  altitude  13,000 
feet,  when  the  patriots  gained  a  complete  victory.  In  De- 
cember of  the  same  year,  1824,  General  Sucre  gained  the 
hard-fought  battle  of  Apurimac,  which  ended  Spanish  do- 
minion in  South  America. 

More  or  less  troublous  times  with  brief  intervals  of  har- 
mony followed  the  securing  of  independence,  until  the  War 
of  the  Pacific  broke  out  in  1879.  In  accordance  with  a  secret 
treaty,  Peru  went  to  the  assistance  of  Bolivia  after  the 
Chilians  had  seized  Antofagasta  on  account  of  a  quarrel 
over  a  nitrate  tax.  Following  some  successes,  the  Peruvian 


PERU  151 

fleet  was  destroyed;  the  coast  was  exposed  to  the  enemy. 
In  1881  Lima  was  captured,  and  held  until  the  signing  of 
the  treaty  of  Ancon  in  1883.  In  accordance  with  this  treaty 
the  Province  of  Tarapaca  was  ceded  to  Chile.  Tacna  and 
Arica  were  yielded  for  ten  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
the  residents  were  to  vote  whether  they  desired  to  remain 
with  Chile  or  return  to  their  former  allegiance.  The  fact 
that  no  vote  has  yet  been  taken,  while  Chile  retains  posses- 
sion, has  for  years  caused  much  ill  feeling  and  friction  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  which  several  times  have  been  on 
the  verge  of  war. 

Within  the  last  ten  years  there  have  been  several  internal 
disturbances  in  Peru  and  one  revolution;  these,  however,  are 
short  lived  and  do  not  affect  the  people  generally  or  inter- 
fere with  business  for  more  than  a  day  or  two;  nor  do  the 
revolutions  derange  concessions  or  the  investments  of  for- 
eign capital. 

GOVERNMENT 

The  government  is  a  centralized  republic,  based  on  the  con- 
stitution of  1860,  revised  in  1920.  The  President  is  now  elected 
for  five  years;  he  is  ineligible  for  immediate  reelection.  The 
other  two  branches  of  government  are  of  the  usual  form.  Con- 
gress has  two  Chambers^  a  Senate  of  35  members  and  Depu- 
ties 1 10,  both  elected  by  direct  vote.  Alternates  are  chosen  to 
assume  office  in  case  of  vacancy.  There  are  also  three  local 
legislatures.  The  President  appoints  the  Prefects  of  Depart- 
ments and  the  Sub-prefects  of  Provinces;  the  Prefects  name 
the  Gobernadores  of  the  Districts.  The  President  controls  the 
police  of  the  country ;  the  supervision  of  education  is  central- 
ized. The  Judiciary  has  a  Supreme  Court  at  Lima,  nine  Supe- 
rior Courts  in  the  chief  cities,  and  Lower  Courts  in  smaller 
places. 

Peruvian  male  citizens  over  21  may  vote,  if  a  master  em- 
ployer, a  real  estate  owner,  a  tax  payer,  or  able  to  read  and 
write. 


152 


THE  WEST  COAST 


Peru  has  22  separate  divisions  aside  from  Tacna,  of  which 
three  are  littoral  Provinces  and  the  rest  Departments ;  the  latter 
are  divided  into  118  Provinces,  and  these  into  800  or  more 
Districts.  The  Departments  and  unattached  Provinces,  with 
approximate  area  and  population,  their  capitals,  population,  and 
altitude  are  as  follows: 


DEPARTMENTS 

AREA, 
in  square 
miles 

POPULA- 
TION 

CAPITALS 

POPULA- 
TION 

ALTI- 
TUDE 
in 
feet 

Coastal  Divisions 
Turnbes  (Province)  . 

2,000 

8,000 

Tumbes  

3.  OOO 

Piura  

I7.OOO 

1^5.000 

Piura 

15,000 

167 

Lambayeque  

4,600 

Q^.OOO 

Chiclayo  

^.ooo 

82 

Libertad  

10,000 

188,000 

Trujillo  

15,000 

203 

Ancash  

16,500 

317,000 

Huaras  

12,000 

Q.Q28 

Lima  

13,000 

250,000 

Lima  

175.000 

4.5O 

Callao  (Province)  .  .  . 

is 

35.OOO 

Callao  

35.000 

6 

lea.  .          .    . 

8.7OO 

68,200 

lea  

IO,OOO 

I  312 

Arequipa  

22,000 

172,000 

Arequipa  

5O.OOO 

7.SSO 

Moquegua         (Pro- 
vince) 

Sierra  Departments 
Cajamarca  .... 

1,255 

125,000 

32,000 
T^.ooo 

Moquegua.  .  .  . 
Cajamarca.  .  .  . 

5,000 
12,000 

4,034 
Q.23O 

Huanuco  . 

14,000 

110,000 

Huanuco  .... 

6,000 

6  27O 

Junin  

23,000 

305,000 

Cerro  de  Pasco 

15,000 

14,300 

Huancavelica  .  . 

q.OOO 

167,000 

Huancavelica.  . 

8,000 

I2,4OO 

Ayacucho  

l8,OOO 

227,000 

Ayacucho  

20,000 

Q.2OO 

Apurimac.  .  .  . 

8,100 

I^.OOO 

Abancay  

6.">oo 

7.854 

Cuzco  

90,000 

300,000 

Cuzco  

30,000 

1  1.445 

Puno.  .  .  . 

28,000 

2  7O.OOO 

Puno  

1  3.  OOO 

I2,6OO 

Montana  Depart- 
ments 
Amazonas  

14,000 

S^.OOO 

Chachapoyas  .  . 

4.500 

7.635 

San  Martin  

30,000 

33,000 

Moyabamba.  .  . 

5,000 

2,  gOO 

Loreto  . 

172  OOO 

1  2O  OOO 

Iquitos  

18,000 

356 

Madre  de  Dios  

25,500 

16,000 

Maldonado.  .  .  . 

500 

836 

PERU  153 

POPULATION 

As  previously  stated,  the  population  is  largely  an  estimate, 
but  probably  approaches  6,000,000.  From  the  above  approxi- 
mate figures  it  is  evident  that  it  is  very  unevenly  distributed, 
as  it  is  in  fact  in  all  of  the  Republics.  There  are  three  principal 
classes  aside  from  the  wild  or  uncivilized  Indians  of  the  mon- 
tana: the  whites,  the  real  governing  class,  chiefly  of  Spanish 
origin,  some  with  a  slight  admixture  of  Indian  blood ;  the  mes- 
tizos, more  nearly  half  and  half,  white  and  Indian,  largely  the 
artisan  and  tradesman  class ;  the  Indians,  most  numerous  in  the 
sierra,  much  as  in  Inca  days,  but  probably  poorer  in  mental 
and  physical  condition  and  in  creature  comforts  than  in  the 
earlier  period.  The  population  of  the  montana  in  the  lower 
forest  section  beyond  the  mountains  is  wild  Indian  except  for 
a  very  small  percentage  of  white  and  Indian  gold  diggers  or 
rubber  gatherers.  Even  now,  in  spite  of  exploration  for  several 
centuries,  there  are  probably  thousands  who  have  never  seen  a 
white  man.  The  entire  number  of  montana  Indians  is  esti- 
mated (it  can  only  be  a  guess)  at  perhaps  300,000.  Of  the 
rest  the  proportion  is  very  uncertain,  but  one  writer  gives  it  as 
Indians  50  per  cent,  mestizos  35,  whites  n  per  cent,  the  rest 
negroes,  sambos,  and  Asiatics. 

EDUCATION 

The  opportunities  for  higher  education  are  relatively 
superior  to  those  for  primary,  though  this  by  law  is  free 
and  compulsory.  But  as  no  schools  have  been  provided 
in  many  Districts,  not  half  of  the  children  have  been  able 
to  attend,  and  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is  large.  At  the 
moment,  however,  1921,  plans  have  been  inaugurated  to 
remedy  this  state  of  affairs,  and  teachers  have  sailed  from 
the  United  States  to  aid  in  the  further  development  of  edu- 
cational facilities.  There  are  four  universities  in  Peru,  that 
of  San  Marcos  in  Lima,  the  oldest  on  this  hemisphere ;  others 


154  THE  WEST  COAST 

of  lesser  scope  and  merit  in  Arequipa,  Cuzco,  and  Trujillo. 
Lima  has  also  a  School  of  Mines;  one  of  Engineering,  Me- 
chanical, Electrical,  Industrial,  and  Architectural;  one  of 
Arts  and  Trades;  a  Normal  School,  a  Naval  School  at 
Callao,  and  a  Military  Academy  at  Chorillos,  a  suburb  of 
Lima.  There  are  secondary  schools  called  colegios  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities,  and  private  schools  of  high  grade. 


PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

Press.  Aside  from  official  publications,  the  Press  in- 
cludes newspapers  and  periodicals  of  considerable  variety. 
Lima  has  several  good  newspapers  which  have  a  wide  cir- 
culation, owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  carried  free  of 
charge  inside  the  Republic,  as  are  literary  and  scientific 
journals  also.  Some  of  the  smaller  towns  have  their  own 
newspapers. 

Religion.  The  religion  of  the  country  is  Roman  Cath- 
olic, but  other  forms  of  worship  are  permitted.  Provision 
is  made  for  the  civil  marriage  of  foreigners. 

Postal  and  Telegraph  Service.  Foreign  letters  and  par- 
cels for  most  of  the  montana  region  enter  by  way  of  the 
Amazon  River  and  Iquitos. 

Telegraph  service  is  much  employed  locally,  as  the  cost 
is  only  40  centavos,  20  cents,  for  ten  words  to  any  part  of 
the  country.  The  address  and  signature  are  counted,  as  in 
all  of  the  Republics.  Additional  words  are  at  the  same  rate. 
There  are  about  8000  miles  of  wire.  The  United  States  has 
cable  connection  with  Peru  by  three  lines.  Lima  has  wire- 
less connection  with  Iquitos,  a  distance  of  650  miles  in  a 
straight  line,  over  a  mountain  wall  more  than  three  miles 
high.  Other  wireless  stations  are  at  Callao,  Pisco,  Chala, 
Ilo,  Leticia,  El  Canto,  Orellana. 

There  are  many  telephone  systems  with  nearly  200,000 
miles  of  wire. 


PERU  155 

Money  is  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  The  gold  Peruvian 
libra  is  the  equivalent  of  the  English  sovereign,  and  in  general 
they  circulate  interchangeably.  The  libra  is  divided  into  ten 
soles;  a  sol,  about  50  cents  (48.6),  into  100  centavos. 

The  Metric  System,  legal  for  weights  and  measures,  must 
be  employed  in  the  Custom  Houses  and  in  other  Govern- 
ment offices.  Old  Spanish  standards  are  also  used  in  Lima 
and  quite  generally  in  the  country :  the  v ara,  33^  inches,  the 
libra,  a  trifle  over  a  pound,  arroba,  25  libras,  quintal,  100  libras, 
fanegada,  a  little  over  7  acres,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XX 
PERU:  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  country  of  Peru  has  three  distinct  sections  longitu- 
dinally: the  Coast  region,  the  Sierra,  and  the  Montana — the 
first  well  known  and  fairly  settled,  the  second  with  the  greater 
population,  the  third  having  much  the  largest  area,  but  thinly 
peopled  chiefly  by  wild  Indians,  and  not  thoroughly  explored. 
The  term  montana,  one  of  the  Spanish  words  for  mountain, 
in  Peru  is  generally  applied  to  the  forest  region  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Andes  and  the  plains  beyond;  the  plateau  and 
mountain  section  with  the  narrow  valleys  included  form  the 
sierra. 

THE  COASTAL  REGION 

The  coast  of  Peru  is  a  strange  one,  presenting  to  the 
uninformed  traveler  a  series  of  surprises.  One  expects  to 
find  it  hot  in  the  tropics,  at  least  at  sea  level ;  but  on  ship- 
board sailing  south  when  3°  below  the  equator,  at  least  in 
the  winter  season,  which  it  must  be  remembered  is  during 
our  summer,  warm  clothing  if  not  heavy  underwear  is  neces- 
sary with  blankets  at  night.  One  is  amazed  too  to  find 
at  Paita  (for  some  steamers  the  first  port  of  call),  a  real 
desert,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  rich  vegetation  near  the 
Guayas  River. 

The  chief  reason  for  the  comparatively  cool  tempera- 
tures experienced  on  the  entire  coast  of  Peru  is  found  in  the 
Humboldt  or  Antarctic  current  which  flows  from  the  icy 
realms  far  south,  with  chilling  effect,  close  along  the  shore 
to  the  region  of  the  equator,  where  near  the  most  western 
points  of  the  continent  it  turns  west  across  the  Pacific. 

The  high  mountains  too,  here  quite  near  the  shore,  have 

156 


PERU  157 

some  cooling  influence  and  are  a  prime  cause  of  the  existing 
desert.  The  hot  moist  winds,  which  in  the  equatorial 
regions  blow  west  from  the  Atlantic  dropping  more  or  less 
of  their  vapor  on  the  way,  on  reaching  the  highest  Andes 
lose  all  the  rest,  as  every  bit  of  the  moisture  is  condensed 
by  the  freezing  mountain  sides;  the  average  height  of  the 
range  in  Peru  is  above  17,000  feet.  After  passing  the  moun- 
tains the  winds  descend  cool  and  dry  to  the  plains.  The 
damp  chilly  winds  which  come  north  with  the  Antarctic 
current,  as  they  blow  over  the  shore,  find  this  warmer  than 
the  ocean,  so  the  moisture  is  not  condensed. 

Thus  it  is  that  the  coast  of  Peru  with  that  of  northern 
Chile,  being  practically  rainless,  is  called  a  desert,  though  in 
Peru  it  is  not  wholly  barren.  From  her  mountains  58 
streams  come  down  toward  the  Pacific,  though  not  all  reach 
the  ocean  or  last  throughout  the  year.  In  these  valleys 
there  is  green,  a  beautiful  and  welcome  contrast  to  the 
desert;  in  most  of  them  are  irrigation  and  agriculture. 
Because  the  nitrates  have  not  been  washed  out  of  the  soil 
by  rain,  where  a  suitable  water  supply  can  be  provided,  the 
land  constitutes  one  of  the  finest  agricultural  regions  on  the 
globe. 

In  proportion -to  its  length  the  area  of  the  coast  line  is 
small,  as  the  Andes  here  run  closer  to  the  shore  than  in 
Ecuador,  especially  in  the  central  portion,  where  spurs  from 
the  main  range  sometimes  end  in  bold  bluffs  rising  500  feet 
from  the  sea.  In  general  the  width  of  the  coast  land  varies 
from  20  to  50  miles,  in  places  reaching  to  100.  Unfortu- 
nately the  coast  is  slightly  indented  by  gulfs  and  bays  and 
therefore  has  few  good  harbors. 

THE  SIERRA 

In  the  sierra  country  we  find  the  greatest  development 
of  the  mountain  system  of  the  Andes  attained  in  its  entire 
course.  For  the  most  part  it  here  consists  of  three  ranges, 


158  THE  WEST  COAST 

the  Maritime,  the  Central,  and  the  East  Cordillera.  The  first 
two,  near  together,  are  regarded  as  of  similar  origin,  sepa- 
rated during  ages  by  the  action  of  water.  They  include  vol- 
canoes and  mineral  springs;  and  in  some  parts  of  the  lofty 
region  between  the  two,  cold  alpine  lakes,  sources  of  coast 
rivers  and  also  of  Amazon  tributaries. 

The  Maritime  Cordillera  is  not  connected  with  the  coast 
ranges  of  Chile,  but  is  a  continuation  of  that  cordillera  which 
forms  the  eastern  limit  of  the  coastal  Chilian  desert  and  the 
western  boundary  of  the  great  Bolivian  plateau.  In  Bolivia 
and  Southern  Peru  it  is  a  volcanic  chain  with  some  peaks  of 
great  height,  over  20,000  feet.  Though  generally  quiescent, 
one  volcano  in  Peru  south  of  Arequipa  in  the  year  1700 
erupted  continuously  for  two  weeks.  El  Misti,  altitude 
19,200  feet,  above  Arequipa  is  well  known.  From  the  sum- 
mit a  little  smoke  may  be  seen  in  the  depths  of  the  crater. 
The  volcanoes  seem  to  have  some  connection  with  earth- 
quakes, with  which  this  region  is  often  affected.  Though 
the  quakes  are  mostly  slight  tremors,  severe  shocks  occur; 
70  of  a  destructive  nature  have  been  reported  since  1570. 
The  worst,  which  in  1746  completely  destroyed  Callao,  was 
followed  by  220  shocks  within  24  hours.  The  city  was  over- 
whelmed by  a  tidal  wave  80  feet  high  from  which  not  half 
a  dozen  inhabitants  escaped.  The  earthquake  of  1868,  which 
was  felt  over  most  of  South  America,  half  destroyed  Are- 
quipa, and  tidal  waves  swept  over  Arica  and  Iquique.  In 
1877  nearly  half  of  the  southern  ports  were  submerged;  in 
1906  a  good  portion  of  Valparaiso,  Chile,  was  laid  in  ruins, 
a  fate  within  a  period  of  12  months  shared  by  San  Francisco 
and  by  Kingston,  Jamaica.  At  about  10°  S.  Lat.  the  Mari- 
time Cordillera  separates  into  two  ranges  for  a  distance  of 
100  miles,  the  Cordillera  Negra,  and  the  Cordillera  Blanca, 
the  two  enclosing  the  Huailas  Valley;  north  of  where  the 
Santa  River  breaks  through  toward  the  coast,  the  Black 
Range  begins  to  subside,  the  Maritime  continuing  to  Ecua- 
dor in  a  single  chain. 


PERU  159 

The  Central  Cordillera  is  the  true  divide,  forming  the 
continental  watershed.  A  single  river,  the  Marafion,  breaks 
through  in  its  lower  northern  part,  while  20  coast  streams 
rising  in  the  Central  cut  the  Maritime  range ;  the  East  Cor- 
dillera is  fractured  by  six  Peruvian  rivers,  the  Marafion, 
Huallaga,  Perene,  Mantaro,  Apurimac,  Vilcamayu,  and  Pau- 
cartambo,  all  but  the  first  being  affluents  of  the  Ucayali, 
which  some  authorities  call  a  tributary  of  the  Marafion. 
Oftener  these  two  are  said  to  unite  to  form  the  Amazon. 

The  East  Cordillera.  While  the  Central  Cordillera  is 
volcanic  in  part,  the  East  is  of  Silurian  formation,  older  and 
non-volcanic  except  at  the  edge  of  Lake  Titicaca.  The  last, 
in  Bolivia  a  splendid  range,  is  lower  in  Peru.  It  has  the 
high  plateau  region  on  the  west;  east  is  the  Amazon  Basin 
into  which  its  spurs  extend  for  varying  distances.  The 
Central  and  Eastern  Andes  are  connected  by  a  transverse 
mountain  knot  at  Vilcanota,  or  Cuzco,  while  a  similar  knot 
occurs  at  Cerro  de  Pasco.  Farther  north  the  Central  Cor- 
dillera separates  the  valleys  of  the  Marafion  and  the  Hual- 
laga, while  the  eastern  Andes  is  between  the  latter  and  the 
Ucayali.  The  three  ranges  are  clearly  defined  much  of  the 
way  in  Peru,  and  back  of  Chimbote  in  the  section  including 
the  Huailas  Valley  there  are  four. 

THE  MONTANA 

The  third  longitudinal  division  in  Peru,  the  Trans- 
Andine,  usually  referred  to  as  the  montana,  is  the  region  of 
subtropical  and  tropical  forest.  It  is  traversed  by  great  rivers, 
largely  navigable.  Partly  in  the  sierra  country  are  the  Maranon, 
600,  and  the  Huallaga,  400  miles  long,  before  their  union;  150 
miles  beyond  they  are  joined  by  the  Ucayali,  a  great  river  with 
a  course  of  600  miles,  more  navigable  than  the  other  two.  These 
three  rivers  with  their  affluents  drain  the  northern  and  the  cen- 
tral part  of  Peru.  The  streams  of  the  southern  portion  are 
tributary  to  the  Madre  de  Dios  which  flows  into  the  Beni, 


160  THE  WEST  COAST 

the  latter  uniting  with  the  Mamore  to  form  the  Madeira.  The 
montana  section,  800  miles  from  north  to  south,  has  a  sub- 
tropical region  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Andes,  the  branches 
of  which  run  out  60  or  80  miles  towards  the  lowlands,  and  the 
tropical  forests  of  the  latter.  In  the  northern  section  a  con- 
siderable district  between  the  Huallaga  and  the  Ucayali  rivers, 
traversed  by  the  Andes,  is  composed  of  grassy  plains  called  the 
Pampa  del  Sacramento.  Some  of  this  northern  region  is  called 
the  montana,  having  its  characteristics,  although  not  east  of 
the  East  Cordillera. 

CLIMATE 

The  climate  of  Peru,  a  country  like  those  preceding 
entirely  within  the  tropics,  has  similar  though  greater  varia- 
tions from  altitude,  as  its  mountains  are  higher,  its  table- 
lands more  lofty  and  extensive.  With  a  larger  area  of  tem- 
perate climate  on  its  highlands,  it  has  also,  in  wide  contrast 
to  the  others,  a  fairly  temperate  region  along  its  entire  coast. 
This  last,  however,  differs  from  the  ordinary  climate  of  the 
temperate  zone,  as  does  that  at  an  altitude  of  6000  or  8000 
feet,  in  having  weather  which  is  never  so  hot  as  often  in 
almost  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  at  the  same  time 
is  never  so  cold.  At  Lima,  eight  miles  from  the  sea,  the 
mean  temperature  is  66° ;  in  the  warm  season,  December 
to  March,  the  mercury  occasionally  climbs  a  little  above 
80°,  and  in  winter,  June  to  September,  it  rarely  falls  below 
50°.  It  is  a  little  warmer  farther  north,  and  on  the  broad 
desert  in  the  sun  it  is  hot,  hotter,  hottest;  as  I  once  found 
to  my  sorrow.  But  comparatively  few  persons  have  occa- 
sion to  travel  there,  and  when  they  do  they  are  likely  to 
journey  in  the  late  afternoon  and  night;  a  more  agreeable 
season  for  such  cross  country  riding.  On  the  deserts,  too, 
it  is  colder  at  night  as  happens  the  world  over. 

The  winter  season  at  Lima  is  damp  and  cloudy,  the 
atmosphere  raw  and  chilly;  with  the  mercury  below  60°  a 


PERU  161 

fire  would  be  most  acceptable,  but  they  never  have  one.  On 
account  of  the  dampness  and  the  evaporation  from  the  heat 
of  the  body,  the  cold  is  felt  more  than  the  temperature  war- 
rants, so  that  overcoats  and  warm  wraps  may  be  donned 
for  sitting  in  the  house.  Conditions  vary  on  other  parts  of 
the  coast;  in  general  there  is  less  fog  and  greater  heat 
farther  north  and  more  fog  and  mist  towards  the  south. 
Mollendo  is  particularly  damp  and  disagreeable.  Some 
shore  places  near  Lima  have  much  more  sunshine  than  that 
city,  and  20  miles  from  the  sea  one  gets  beyond  the  fog  belt 
into  a  region  of  perpetual  spring.  Although  the  climate 
of  Lima  is  said  to  be  rather  enervating  to  permanent  resi- 
dents, many  dwellers  in  the  temperate  zone  would  prefer  it 
to  that  of  any  other  coast  city  within  the  tropics. 

On  the  highlands  the  climate  is  widely  diverse.  The 
seasons  are  opposite,  as  there  it  is  the  dry  season  from  May 
to  October,  when  it  is  damp  on  the  coast,  while  the  chief 
precipitation  above  occurs  during  their  summer,  the  dry 
months  below.  At  an  altitude  of  7000  or  8000  feet  the  cli- 
mate is  considered  agreeable,  at  Arequipa  averaging  57°,  at 
Cajamarca  52°.  At  12,000  to  15,000  feet  it  is  generally  cool, 
perhaps  bracing  to  those  accustomed  thereto,  but  often  trying 
to  the  visitor,  who  is  likely  to  suffer  from  soroche,  the  name 
applied  to  mountain  sickness. 

In  the  montana  there  is  variation  due  to  altitude,  as  in  the 
sierra,  as  this  region  includes  the  forested  district  from  an 
altitude  of  nearly  10,000  feet  down  to  1000  or  less  in  the  basin 
of  the  large  Amazon  tributaries.  From  3000  to  7000  feet  the 
climate  is  delightful  to  those  who  do  not  enjoy  greater  con- 
trasts. Huanuco,  altitude  6270  feet,  has  an  annual  tempera- 
ture of  74°,  other  places  a  lower  temperature,  and  far  down, 
as  at  Iquitos,  a  higher.  Most  of  the  region  is  healthful,  as  is  also 
the  sierra,  for  persons  of  sound  constitution  under  suitable 
living  conditions  and  employing  intelligent  care.  In  some  parts 
of  the  lowlands  malaria  is  occasional  or  permanent,  in  other 
parts  it  is  unknown. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

PERU:  CAPITAL,  DEPARTMENTS,  AND  CHIEF 

CITIES 

THE  CAPITAL 

Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rimac 
eight  miles  from  the  port,  Callao,  is  a  city  of  picturesque 
charm.  Its  population,  with  its  suburbs  200,000,  is  no  indi- 
cation of  its  commercial  importance  or  of  its  elegance  as  a 
social  centre.  One  of  the  three  cities  of  the  world  where 
the  best  Spanish  is  spoken,  some  impartial  critics  say  that 
in  this  respect  it  is  unrivalled  in  the  New  World.  Social 
amenities,  everywhere  important,  are  here  peculiarly  requi- 
site for  agreeable  and  successful  business  relations.  Parisian 
elegance  is  seen  on  the  narrow  streets,  and  in  one  story 
dwellings  as  well  as  in  larger  mansions.  The  great  cathe- 
dral is  called  the  finest  in  South  America. 

The  city  takes  pride  in  its  numerous  churches,  its  plazas, 
the  excellent  shops  on  the  narrow  streets,  its  University, 
founded  in  1551,  its  museum,  its  new  theatres,  perhaps  even 
in  its  bull-ring,  the  second  largest  in  the  world.  As  in  the 
other  West  Coast  cities,  the  hotels  are  inadequate  (a  new 
one  is  contracted  for),  but  the  old  Maury  long  had  the  repu- 
tation of  being  the  best  on  the  Coast,  and  the  excellence  of 
its  meals  once  rejoiced  the  heart  even  of  a  New  York  club 
man  and  his  East  Indian  valet.  Of  course  the  city  has 
modern  conveniences,  sky-scrapers  happily  excepted. 

162 


PERU  163 


INDIVIDUAL  DEPARTMENTS 

The  COASTAL  DIVISIONS  follow  beginning  at  the  north. 

Tumbes,  the  Province  farthest  north,  is  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  the  coast  by  the  fact  that,  bordering  on 
Ecuador  and  the  edge  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  it  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  that  region,  its  north  shore  being  covered 
with  vegetation.  (The  adjoining  Department  of  Piura, 
because  of  its  proximity  to  the  Ecuador  forests  and  moisture, 
receives  a  rare  torrential  shower.)  Rivers  crossing  Tumbes 
permit  of  irrigation  where  needed.  The  agricultural  prod- 
ucts are  sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  cacao.  The  oil  wells  are 
of  great  importance.  Coal  and  other  minerals  are  found. 

Tumbes,  the  capital,  on  the  Tumbes  River,  is  connected 
by  a  narrow  gauge  railway  with  its  port,  Pizarro,  seven 
miles  distant,  where  steamers  on  their  way  to  Guayaquil 
call  every  week  or  two. 

Piura,  the  first  Department  south  of  Tumbes,  is  mainly 
desert,  with  some  fertile  irrigated  valleys.  The  culture  of 
a  native  cotton  resembling  wool  is  a  leading  industry.  Other 
exports  are  Panama  hats  and  hides.  Near  the  coast  are 
important  oil  wells.  Paita,  with  one  of  the  best  harbors  on 
the  coast,  is  the  first  port  of  call  for  some  of  the  express 
steamers  from  Panama. 

Piura,  capital  of  the  Department,  mean  temperature  78°, 
is  in  an  irrigated  valley  60  miles  from  the  desert  port  Paita, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  A  line  of  narrower  gauge 
goes  on  to  Catacaos,  population  20,000,  six  miles  distant  but 
nearer  the  sea,  where  300,000  Panama  hats  are  made  yearly. 
They  may  be  bought  at  Paita  for  one  fourth,  perhaps  for 
one  eighth  of  the  price  commonly  asked  for  the  finer  ones 
in  New  York.  The  main  railway  is  to  be  prolonged  from 
Piura  to  the  town  of  Moropon.  Farther  south,  from  Bay- 
ovar,  a  small  port  on  the  Bay  of  Sechura,  a  railroad  leads  30 
miles  to  the  sulphur  mines  of  Reventazon ;  but  the  sulphur, 


164  THE  WEST  COAST 

an  important  export,  must  be  cleared  from  the  custom  house 
at  Paita. 

Lambayeque,  south  of  Piura,  contains  large  estates  of 
sugar  and  rice,  the  chief  exports.  It  has  one  of  the  primary 
coast  ports,  Eten  (population  3000),  but  a  poor  one,  merely 
an  open  roadstead  where  there  is  always  a  swell,  at  times 
so  severe  that  debarking  passengers  must  be  lowered  in  a 
sort  of  hogshead  by  windlass,  chain,  and  pulley  to  the  launch 
or  small  boat  alongside.  Freight  lowered  to  lighters  is 
likely  here  to  get  a  particularly  hard  bump.  An  iron  pier 
2000  feet  long  is  for  the  use  of  the  lighters. 

Chiclayo,  the  capital,  is  41  miles  by  rail  from  Eten.  By 
this  railway  and  its  branches,  Ferrenafe,  Lambayeque,  and 
Patapo  may  also  be  reached.  From  Pimentel,  a  minor  port, 
a  shorter  railway  runs  to  Chiclayo.  From  the  Lobos 
Islands  off  the  coast  much  guano  was  formerly  taken. 

La  Libertad,  the  larger  Department  following,  has  two 
primary  ports,  the  first,  Pacasmayo,  a  short  sail  from  Eten. 
From  Pacasmayo  85  miles  of  railway  lead  up  country  to  the 
towns  Guadalupe  and  Chilete.  From  Chilete  the  road 
should  be  carried  over  the  Cordillera  to  the  important  city 
of  Cajamarca,  50  miles  beyond,  whither  Pizarro  marched 
nearly  400  years  ago ;  but  the  grades  would  be  difficult  and 
the  road  awaits  the  supply  of  more  pressing  needs.  Another 
long  pier  serves  the  port  of  Pacasmayo,  from  which  are 
shipped  sugar,  rice,  fruit,  etc.  Sixty-six  miles  farther  is  the 
primary  port  of  Salaverry,  population  5000. 

Trujillo,  the  capital  of  the  Department,  is  eight  miles 
distant ;  beyond  is  the  Chicama  Valley,  noted  for  its  splendid 
sugar  estates.  A  railway  75  miles  long  going  up  the  valley 
to  Ascope,  does  a  large  business.  An  extension  planned  to 
the  plateau  above,  12,900  feet,  will  pass  extensive  coal  fields 
at  Huanday,  and  reach  copper  and  silver  mines  at  Queru- 
vilca.  A  maximum  grade  of  6l/2  per  cent  would  make  the 
construction  expensive.  Another  road  from  the  sugar  lands 


PERU  165 

is  being  constructed  to  the  better  port,  Malabrigo.  A  little 
north  of  Salaverry  is  the  minor  port  of  Huanchaco,  which 
also  exports  much  sugar,  though  the  chief  shipment  is  from 
Salaverry. 

Ancash,  the  next  Department,  which  is  still  larger,  has 
five  minor  ports,  one  of  which,  Chimbote,  should  soon  be- 
come a  primary.  For  this  expectation  there  are  several 
reasons:  first,  the  harbor,  land  locked  by  a  long  peninsula 
and  several  islands,  is  called  the  finest  on  the  entire  West 
Coast  below  Panama.  It  has  an  area  of  36  square  miles 
without  a  rock  below  its  placid  surface.  Though  now  with 
but  an  ordinary  iron  pier  for  lighters,  docks  approachable 
by  the  largest  ships  could  be  arranged  on  an  island,  which 
a  bridge  over  a  200  yard  channel  would  easily  connect  with 
the  main  land.  There  are  two  other  entrances,  one  half  a 
mile  across. 

The  American  capitalist,  Henry  Meiggs,  the  prime  mover 
in  the  construction  of  the  South  and  Central  Peruvian  Rail- 
ways, had  the  foresight  in  the  early  seventies  to  perceive 
the  great  commercial  possibilities  of  this  harbor.  He  planned 
a  city  on  the  shore  and  began  a  railway  to  extend  up  the 
Santa  River  Valley  to  Huaras,  167  miles.  The  road  bed 
had  been  constructed  80  miles,  the  rails  laid  60,  when  the 
Chilian  war  broke  out.  The  invaders,  after  capturing  Chim- 
bote, carried  off  the  rolling  stock  and  supplies  and  destroyed 
what  else  they  could.  Subsequently  the  project  remained 
long  in  abeyance,  the  road  being  operated  for  35  miles  only ; 
but  after  several  recent  concessions  and  delays  with  little 
work  accomplished,  the  Government  has  taken  over  the 
line  and  is  pushing  forward  the  extension  from  the  point 
already  attained,  La  Limena,  65  miles  from  Chimbote. 
Work  was  begun  July,  1919,  on  a  branch  line  to  coal  fields 
near  Ancos,  15^2  miles,  which  later  will  pass  near  two  copper 
deposits  and  through  Huamachuco  and  Cajabamba.  After 
the  first  few  miles  the  main  road  follows  the  Santa  River, 
which  enters  the  ocean  a  few  miles  north  of  the  harbor. 


166  THE  WEST  COAST 

The  Santa  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  largest  river 
in  Peru  flowing  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Rising  among  the 
heavily  snow  covered  peaks  of  the  White  Cordillera,  though 
nowhere  navigable  it  has  a  large  water  supply  for  irrigation, 
made  use  of  by  the  Incas.  It  could  easily  be  made  available 
for  a  large  district  back  of  Chimbote.  At  present  the  rail- 
way serves  only  a  few  sugar  plantations  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  river's  course,  but  its  further  construction  will  open 
up  immense  coal  fields,  and  farther  on  in  the  Huailas  Valley 
great  mineral  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  etc.,  and  a  fine  though 
limited  agricultural  district  which  already  has  a  large  popu- 
lation. 

The  Huailas  Valley  has  on  the  east  the  Cordillera  Blanca, 
whose  splendid  snow  capped  summits  rise  to  an  altitude  of 
20,000  to  22,000  feet ;  on  the  west  the  Cordillera  Negra  reaches 
a  height  of  17,000  to  18,000  feet;  the  passes  into  the  valley  are 
above  14,000.  The  floor  of  the  valley  rises  from  3000  feet 
at  the  north  to  10,000  at  Huaras  and  11,000  at  Recuay.  Along 
the  way  are  the  considerable  towns  of  Caraz,  Yungay,  Car- 
huaz,  and  Huaraz,  capital  of  the  Department,  each  with  popu- 
lations of  from  5000  to  10,000,  besides  the  people  at  haciendas 
and  at  mining  centers  on  either  hand.  This  has  been  called 
the  richest  and  most  thickly  settled  portion  of  Peru.  All 
sub-tropical  and  temperate  productions  flourish  here  at 
various  elevations;  the  mineral  riches  may  rival  the  Klon- 
dike as  the  scenic  splendor  surpasses  that  of  Chamonix. 
East  of  Yungay  rises  the  magnificent  twin-peaked  Huas- 
caran,  the  first  and  only  ascent  of  which  was  made  by  the 
author  with  two  Swiss  guides,  September  2,  1908;  the  north 
peak,  altitude  21,812  feet,  is  still,  1921,  the  highest  point  in 
all  America  yet  attained  by  any  North  or  South  American. 

The  only  difficulty  in  the  construction  of  the  railway  is 
where  the  Santa  River  breaks  through  the  Black  Cordillera 
to  turn  towards  the  coast,  the  narrow  gorge  being  imprac- 
ticable even  for  pedestrians.  In  this  region  and  beyond  are 
immense  coal  fields.  These,  chiefly  anthracite  and  semi- 


PERU  167 

anthracite,  therefore  non-coking,  some  people  believed 
worthless,  being  ignorant  that  for  many  purposes  hard  coal 
is  more  valuable  than  soft.  However  there  are  also  beds 
of  bituminous.  The  coal  deposits  continue  in  the  lateral 
valleys,  where  the  owners  use  them  merely  for  their  own 
households.  Samples  run  over  82  per  cent  carbon.  A  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  Caraz  (population  8000)  coal  may  be  mined 
and  put  on  trucks  at  $1.50  a  ton.  The  Chuquisaca  River 
from  the  north  joins  the  Santa  just  before  that  breaks 
through  the  Cordillera.  This  Department  is  very  moun- 
tainous. Besides  the  Santa,  four  rivers  descend  to  the  sea, 
i.e.,  they  do  sometimes;  for,  rising  on  the  west  of  the  Black 
Range,  obviously  so  called  because  it  has  little  snow  on  it, 
these  rivers  are  often  dry,  yet  they  serve  to  irrigate  many  sugar 
plantations.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Santa  River  north  of  Chim- 
bote  is  the  village  Santa,  an  occasional  port  of  call  for  the 
caletero  (not  express)  boats,  which  regularly  visit  several  ports 
below :  Samanco,  27  miles  of  desert  from  Chimbote,  Casma, 
after  50  miles  more,  and  Huarmey,  55  beyond.  Back  of 
Samanco  is  the  Nepena  River  Valley  with  two  large  sugar 
plantations;  and  high  in  the  Black  Range,  Colquipocro,  one 
of  the  richest  silver  mines  worked  in  Peru.  Some  of  the 
selected  ore  ran  as  high  as  $2000  a  ton,  and  large  quantities 
averaged  $200  when  silver  was  50  cents  an  ounce.  Samanco 
and  Casma  are  the  usual  ports  for  entering  the  Huailas 
Valley;  Chimbote  also  serves. 

Lima.  The  Departments  of  Lima  and  lea  follow,  in 
which  the  mountains  come  closer  to  the  shore  than  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  country,  and  the  rivers  except  at  the 
extreme  south  are  nearer  together.  Thus  the  Departments 
exhibit  much  verdure,  a  larger  proportion  of  the  country 
being  devoted  to  agriculture.  A  minor  port  of  Lima  is  Supe, 
followed  by  Huacho,  of  more  importance  and  connected  with 
the  capital  by  rail,  150  miles,  passing  Ancon,  a  frequented 
summer  seashore  resort. 

Callao,  the  port  of  Lima  and  the  chief  port  of  Peru,  is 


168  THE  WEST  COAST 

with  its  suburbs  a  little  Province  all  by  itself,  surrounded 
by  the  Department  of  Lima  except  on  the  ocean  side. 

Cerro  Azul  is  a  more  southern  port  in  the  Department 
of  Lima,  serving  a  very  mountainous  section,  with  fertile 
valleys  producing  sugar,  cotton,  vegetables,  etc.,  and  in  the 
mountains  many  minerals. 

lea  is  an  extremely  fertile  Department,  raising  very  fine 
grapes  and  other  fruits,  sugar  cane  and  cotton ;  also  corn, 
alfalfa,  divi-divi,  and  aji,  a  kind  of  pepper  much  used  in 
Peru  and  other  countries.  Wine  making  is  a  very  important 
industry.  Minerals  exist,  but  are  not  much  worked  except  a 
silver  mine. 

lea,  the  capital,  centre  of  the  finest  grape  country  in  the 
Republic,  is  46  miles  by  rail  from  Pisco,  the  chief  port,  and 
the  most  important  one  between  Callao  and  Mollendo. 
Lomas  is  a  smaller  port  in  the  Department.  lea  has  some 
good  land  uncultivated,  but  needing  irrigation. 

Arequipa,  the  last  littoral  Department,  has  five  minor 
ports  besides  the  primary  port,  Mollendo,  second  in  import- 
ance in  Peru ;  but  the  port  is  a  very  poor  one,  no  real  harbor 
at  all.  Chala  is  a  port  of  call  for  some  steamers,  but  the 
rest  are  very  minor:  Camana,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Majes 
River  which  comes  down  from  Mt.  Coropuna,  Quilca,  Mata- 
rani,  and  Islay,  the  last  two  not  far  north  of  Mollendo,  and 
with  better  harbors.  Along  here  the  mountains  are  farther 
back  and  some  have  much  snow,  so  that  several  rivers 
present  good  possibilities  for  additional  irrigation.  Cotton, 
sugar,  and  grapes  grow  in  the  valleys;  corn,  potatoes,  and 
cereals  higher  up.  There  is  a  variety  of  mineral  products: 
the  most  important,  silver  from  Cailloma ;  but  gold,  copper, 
lead,  coal,  borax,  sulphur,  manganese,  alum,  gypsum,  are 
found,  and  some  of  them  are  exported. 

The  Southern  Railway  of  Peru,  leading  up  from  Mol- 
lendo, is  an  important  line  which  will  be  referred  to  later. 
Back  of  the  coastal  bluffs,  which  rise  on  irregular  slopes 
3000  feet  or  more,  is  a  desert  plateau  of  especial  interest, 


PERU  .  169 

on  account  of  the  sand  dunes  10-12  feet  high  which  move 
slowly  over  it. 

Moquegua,  a  Province  south,  the  last  district  held  by 
Peru,  has  a  primary  port,  Ilo,  from  which  a  railway  62  miles 
long  extends  to  its  capital,  Moquegua.  The  soil  of  the  Prov- 
ince is  especially  adapted  to  grapes  and  olives,  which  with 
wine  and  oil  are  the  chief  exports.  Many  varieties  of  min- 
erals are  known  to  exist  here  in  quantity. 

THE  SIERRA  REGION 

This,  perhaps  the  best  populated  of  the  three  sections, 
comprises  seven  Departments,  some  of  which  run  over  or 
down  into  the  montana,  as  most  of  the  Coast  Departments 
run  up  into  the  sierra. 

Cajamarca,  bordering  on  Ecuador,  is  the  first  Depart- 
ment at  the  north,  a  rather  long  one,  running  south  back 
of  Piura,  Lambayeque,  and  part  of  Libertad,  which  last  is 
also  on  the  south,  as  in  its  southern  part  it  extends  over  the 
West  Cordillera  and  beyond  the  Marafion.  Cajamarca  has 
that  river  on  the  east  separating  it  from  Amazonas.  Com- 
munication with  the  outside  world  is  poor,  the  best  by  way 
of  Pacasmayo.  An  extension  of  the  railway  from  this  port 
is  hoped  for.  The  highlands  favor  cattle  and  sheep  breed- 
ing ;  the  valleys  produce  cereals,  coffee,  and  sugar.  Of  course 
there  are  minerals. 

Cajamarca,  the  capital,  famed  for  the  seizure  and  murder 
of  Atahuallpa  by  Pizarro  and  the  slaughter  or  dispersion  of 
his  army,  is  an  important  town  and  distributing  centre,  with 
many  industries;  leather  goods,  mining,  cotton  and  woolen 
cloth,  etc. 

Huanuco,  the  next  Sierra  Department,  does  not  touch 
Cajamarca.  East  of  Ancash,  it  has  Junin  on  the  south,  and 
Loreto  east  and  north.  Traversed  by  the  Central  and  the 
East  Cordilleras,  by  the  Maranon,  Huallaga,  and  Pachitea 
Rivers,  it  has  the  Ucayali  as  its  eastern  boundary.  At  the 


170  THE  WEST  COAST 

northeast  corner  the  Pachitea  flows  into  the  Ucayali,  both 
rivers  being  navigable.  The  central  route  from  Lima  to 
Iquitos  goes  down  the  Pachitea.  All  kinds  of  riches  are 
here,  but  communication  is  too  difficult  to  make  them  very 
valuable  at  the  moment.  Quicksilver,  coal,  iron,  and  copper 
are  found,  gold  and  silver  as  a  matter  of  course,  agricultural 
products  of  great  variety. 

Huanuco,  the  capital,  with  a  good  climate,  is  68  miles 
from  Cerro  de  Pasco,  on  the  Huallaga  River.  It  is  an  im- 
portant place  with  varied  industries  including  sugar  mills. 

Junin,  south  of  Huanuco,  a  very  large  and  rich  Depart- 
ment, is  east  of  Ancash  and  Lima,  has  Huancavelica  south, 
and  Cuzco  and  Loreto  east.  It  has  three  important  districts, 
better  known  than  those  in  the  Departments  farther  north : 
the  mountain  knot  and  range  at  the  west,  the  plateau,  and 
the  montana  section  running  down  to  the  Ucayali  River, 
which  separates  it  from  Loreto.  Lake  Junin,  36  miles  long 
and  7  wide,  altitude  13,322  feet,  is  the  second  largest  Andean 
Lake.  Near  by,  occurred  the  battle  of  August  6,  1824. 

In  Junin  are  the  head  waters  of  important  rivers :  in  the 
northwest  corner  the  lakes  which  are  the  source  of  the 
Maranon,  Santa  Ana  and  others ;  the  Jauja  or  Mantaro  flows 
south  from  Lake  Junin,  uniting  with  the  Apurimac  later  to 
form  the  Ene;  the  Perene,  rising  on  the  montana  side  of  the 
mountain  far  down  unites  with  the  Ene  to  form  the  Tambo, 
which  soon  joins  the  Urubamba  then  becoming  the  Ucayali. 
The  smaller  Pichis  and  Palcazu  unite  to  form  the  Pachitea 
of  the  Department  of  Huanuco.  Junin  contains  immense 
mineral  wealth;  among  other  mines  the  famous  ones  of 
Cerro  de  Pasco;  large  stocks  of  cattle  and  more  sheep. 
Cereals,  corn,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables  and  fruits  grow 
in  the  valleys  of  the  plateau,  which  has  an  altitude  of 
13,000  to  14,000  feet,  with  a  temperature  of  22°-65°.  In  the 
tropical  east  are  plantations  of  coca,  coffee,  cacao,  sugar,  and 
fruit. 

Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  capital,  will  be  referred  to  later. 


PERU  171 

Huancavelica,  a  smaller  Department  directly  south, 
touches  Lima  on  the  west,  has  lea  west  and  south,  and 
Ayacucho  east.  This  is  a  Sierra  Department  exclusively, 
all  high  mountains,  plateau,  a  few  alpine  lakes,  but  with 
several  deep  canons  in  which  flow  the  rivers,  at  the  north 
the  Mantaro.  Minerals  are  the  chief  wealth.  Famous  since 
they  were  opened  in  1566  are  the  quicksilver  mines;  but 
since  they  were  buried  years  ago  by  a  cave-in  not  much 
quicksilver  has  been  extracted  till  a  very  recent  resumption 
of  activity. 

Huancavelica,  the  capital,  is  an  important  mining  centre 
though  reached  with  some  difficulty  from  Huancayo  or  lea. 
Here  above  12,000  feet  the  production  of  wool  might  be 
expected;  there  are  cotton  mills  also. 

Ayacucho,  a  peculiarly  shaped  Department  twice  the  size 
of  the  preceding,  runs  to  a  point  on  the  north  between  the 
Mantaro  and  Apurimac  Rivers.  It  has  Huancavelica  and 
lea  on  the  west,  Arequipa  on  the  south  and  southeast,  and 
Apurimac  and  Cuzco  east.  This  also  is  mostly  highland, 
with  temperate  zone  agriculture,  cattle  and  sheep,  and  with 
varied  mineral  riches. 

Ayacucho,  the  capital,  is  a  considerable  and  important 
city,  but  a  long  way  to  go  from  anywhere.  Mining  and 
other  industries  are  engaged  in. 

Apurimac,  much  smaller,  has  Ayacucho  northwest  and 
southwest,  a  bit  of  Arequipa  south,  and  Cuzco  southeast  and 
northeast.  The  Department  is  highland,  but  lower  than  at 
the  north,  with  great  grazing  ground  and  forests,  with  fer- 
tile soil  raising  temperate  and  sub-tropical  products,  and 
with  the  inevitable  minerals. 

Abancay,  the  capital,  is  most  accessible  from  Cuzco  or 
from  the  port  of  Chala.  It  is  a  small  city,  of  some  interest. 

Cuzco,  the  largest  Sierra  Department,  with  a  little  of 
Junin  has  Ayacucho  and  Apurimac  west,  Arequipa  south, 
Puno  southeast  and  east,  with  Madre  de  Dios,  Loreto,  and 
Brazil  on  the  north.  The  Apurimac  River  to  which  the 


172  THE  WEST  COAST 

Urubamba  is  nearly  parallel,  forms  most  of  its  western 
boundary,  both  rivers  flowing  a  little  west  of  north.  The 
upper  waters  of  the  Purtis,  and  Madre  de  Dios  flow  north, 
south,  and  east.  Stock  raising  is  carried  on  and  there  are 
minerals,  but  agriculture  is  the  chief  industry.  Cuzco  is 
famed  for  the  excellence  of  its  cacao,  also  for  its  cocoa  and 
coffee ;  it  has  large  sugar  plantations  as  well.  Though  with 
mountainous  highlands,  it  has  much  territory  lower. 

Cuzco,  the  capital,  world  famed  since  its  conquest  by 
Pizarro,  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  head  of  the  side-valley 
of  the  Huatanay  River.  Interesting  from  its  historic  asso- 
ciations, its  massive  ruins,  and  its  picturesque  charm,  it  is 
also  of  commercial  importance. 

Puno,  the  last  Department  of  the  sierra,  has  Madre  de 
Dios  on  the  north,  Cuzco,  Arequipa,  and  Moquegua  west, 
Chile  and  Bolivia  south,  and  Bolivia  east.  The  Department, 
mostly  highland,  includes  the  western  part  of  Lake  Titi- 
caca.  It  contains  many  minerals,  and  has  a  large  output  of 
gold.  The  production  of  wool,  including  the  alpaca  and 
vicuna,  is  highly  important.  Potatoes,  barley,  etc.,  are 
grown. 

Puno,  the  capital,  a  centre  of  mineral  and  woolen  ac- 
tivities, is  the  head  of  Peruvian  navigation  on  Lake  Titi- 
caca  and  a  meeting  place  of  the  two  tribes  or  races,  the 
Quichuas  and  the  Aymaras,  the  latter,  residents  of  northern 
Bolivia.  The  town  is  an  important  centre  of  traffic. 

THE  MONTANA  REGION 

This  region  comprising  nearly  two  thirds  of  Peru  em- 
braces the  eastern  forest  country,  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
East  Cordillera  and  at  the  north  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
other  ranges.  The  region  has  much  rain,  many  large  navi- 
gable rivers,  and  dense  tropical  forests  rich  in  useful  plants, 
fine  hard  woods,  and  rubber  trees.  It  has  some  settlements 
on  the  river  banks  and  on  higher  lands,  and  in  the  forests, 


PERU  173 

Indians,  some  of  whom  are  peaceable  and  friendly,  others 
who  might  have  been  so  had  they  not  been  badly  treated 
by  whites  of  various  nationalities,  others  still  who  have 
never  seen  the  white  man  and  do  not  wish  to.  Three  of 
these  Departments  border  on  Ecuador,  the  most  western, 
Amazonas,  with  Cajamarca  on  the  west,  La  Libertad  south, 
and  San  Martin  east.  The  last  Department,  more  than 
twice  the  size  of  Amazonas,  has  Loreto  on  the  east  and 
south.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Central  Cordillera  and  by  the 
Huallaga  River,  navigable  to  the  important  port  of  Yuri- 
maguas,  but  for  steamers  not  much  farther.  The  immense 
Department  Loreto,  touching  Huanuco  and  Cuzco  on  the 
south,  with  Brazil  on  the  east,  is  with  Madre  de  Dios  natur- 
ally the  least  known  and  least  populated  portion  of  Peru. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Ucayali,  and  by  the  Amazon  both 
above  and  for  some  distance  below  Iquitos,  to  which  port 
ocean  steamers  regularly  ascend.  Madre  de  Dios,  east  of 
Cuzco  and  north  of  Puno,  has  been  little  explored.  A  few 
rubber  and  mining  concessions  have  been  slightly  worked. 
Its  future  will  come  with  transportation. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

PERU:  PORTS  AND  INTERIOR  TRANSPORTA- 
TION 

From  the  physical  character  of  Peru,  it  is  evident  that 
inland  communication  and  traffic  is  of  extraordinary  diffi- 
culty. The  countries  previously  mentioned  and  most  of 
those  to  follow  have  rivers  by  which  access  to  the  interior 
may  be  gained.  In  Colombia  the  Pacific  coast  barrier  is 
not  half  so  high,  and  another  way  is  open  from  the  Carib- 
bean. Venezuela  presents  several  doorways,  Ecuador  also; 
but  in  Peru,  entrance  by  navigable  rivers  would  be  to  jour- 
ney over  2000  miles  from  Para  in  Brazil  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Amazon,  then  arriving  only  at  the  back  door,  remote 
indeed  from  the  busy  civilized  life  at  the  front.  Some  few 
do  come  in  and  go  out  that  way,  but  not  many. 

Peru's  front  is  happily  1200-1300  miles  long,  but  then  a 
wall !  and  in  places  not  one  only ;  back  of  that  another  and 
another;  between  each  two  a  deep,  deep  hollow;  climbs, 
up  and  down,  up  and  down,  to  gain  the  fertile  montana;  or, 
in  the  central  section,  where  it  might  seem  easy  going  after 
having  surmounted  the  high  wall  to  the  lofty  plateau,  there 
are  hills  if  not  dales,  with  few  level  spots.  Do  not  imagine 
that  a  table-land  is  like  a  table!  The  country  is  rolling 
where  not  mountainous ;  nor  is  that  all.  The  various  rivers 
that  wind  about  flowing  now  south  now  north,  southeast 
and  northwest,  with  branches  from  any  direction,  these  are 
not  simple  little  rivers,  a  few  or  many  feet  deep,  which  re- 
quire merely  an  ordinary  bridge ;  but  whether  deep  or  shal- 
low they  are  liable  to  be  and  generally  are  at  the  bottom 
of  a  canon  300  or  3000  feet  deep,  the  top  of  which  may  be 

174 


PERU  175 

a  mile  or  two  across.  For  a  railway  to  descend  to  such 
depths  and  climb  up  the  other  side,  not  once  but  the  many 
times  needful  for  a  road  traversing  the  length  of  Peru  is 
for  a  sparsely  inhabited  country,  governmentally  poor,  quite 
impossible.  Hence  the  slowness  of  Peru's  development 
despite  its  wonderful  riches. 

When  some  years  ago  the  Pan  American  Railway  from 
New  York  to  Buenos  Aires  was  projected,  investigation  was 
made  of  practicable  routes  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment. The  way  in  Ecuador  is  plain  and  in  Colombia  there 
is  little  choice;  but  in  Peru  the  question  of  highland,  low 
coast,  or  far  interior  was  to  be  solved.  The  coast  seemed 
less  desirable  as  along  here  one  could  go  by  water.  More- 
over, the  Maritime  Cordillera  for  a  long  distance  is  so  near 
the  sea  with  so  many  spurs  coming  down  to  the  coast,  or 
as  in  Southern  Peru  a  bluff  several  hundred  or  thousand  feet 
high  with  its  feet  in  the  sea  is  so  cut  every  little  way  by 
one  of  those  58  streams  in  a  very  deep  canon,  that  it  was 
not  more  inviting  than  the  plateau  region  above,  where  the 
road  would  be  much  more  serviceable.  Plateau  was  the 
decision ;  but  for  the  Great  War,  money  might  soon  be  forth- 
coming; as  it  is,  long  delay  is  probable  before  the  road  is 
completed.  As  for  inland  transportation  therefore,  it  may 
be  said  that  it  is  carried  on  mainly  by  sea,  which  is  no  joke 
but  stern  reality ;  accordingly  coast  service  is  well  provided. 

COAST  SERVICE 

British,  Chilian,  Peruvian,  formerly  German,  and  now 
American  steamers  sail  along  the  coast,  some  express  from 
Panama,  calling  at  Callao  and  Mollendo  only;  others,  ex- 
press also,  call  at  the  other  primary  ports,  Paita,  Eten,  Pacas- 
mayo,  Salaverry,  Pisco,  and  Ilo;  still  others,  caletero,  call  at 
the  20  minor  ports  also.  From  many  of  these  ports,  as  we 
have  seen,  railways  extend  some  distance  into  the  interior, 
generally  as  far  as  they  can  go  without  taking  a  stiff  grade. 


176  THE  WEST  COAST 

Beyond  the  termini  and  in  some  cases  directly  from  the 
ports,  freight  is  carried  by  mules,  burros,  or  llamas,  though 
in  but  few  places  do  the  latter  come  down  to  the  sea,  their 
use  being  confined  chiefly  to  the  region  of  the  sierra.  In  the 
old  Inca  days  the  fleet  footed  Indians  sped  over  the  narrow 
trails,  often  carrying  heavy  burdens.  Horses  were  intro- 
duced by  the  Spaniards ;  riding  is  universal,  as  almost  every- 
where it  is  the  only  means  of  travel,  from  the  coast  to  the 
mountain  region  and  within  that  section;  roads  aside  from 
bridle  trails  are  almost  non  existent.  Even  in  the  thickly 
settled  and  rich  Huailas  Valley  there  was  not  a  wheeled 
vehicle  in  1908;  there  is  no  way  by  which  they  could  be 
carried  in  except  in  pieces.  The  iron  horse,  however,  within 
the  last  half  century  has  begun  to  make  its  way. 

CHIEF  PORT 

Callao.  Although  Peru  has  other  primary  ports  which 
should  be  visited  by  commercial  men,  Callao  and  Lima  are 
the  chief  centre  of  commerce  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
country.  Both  cities  are  of  course  provided  with  good 
electric  car  service,  lights,  and  telephones;  they  are  con- 
nected by  an  electric  and  a  steam  railway,  the  latter,  a  part 
of  the  Central  Railway  of  Peru,  which  climbs  to  the  interior 
heights.  The  double  track  electric  road  on  a  broad  boule- 
vard, the  most  popular  connection  between  the  two  cities, 
makes  the  ride  in  28  minutes.  The  site  of  the  port,  Callao, 
population  35,000,  was  chosen  with  discretion,  as  except  for 
Chimbote  it  has  the  best  harbor  below  Panama.  It  ranks 
in  traffic  as  the  fourth  American  port  on  the  entire  Pacific, 
following  Seattle,  San  Francisco,  and  Valparaiso.  Callao 
has  been  distinguished  as  the  only  port  south  of  Panama 
with  docks  accessible  to  large  ships,  though,  as  the  accom- 
modations are  inadequate,  passing  coastal  steamers  usually 
anchor  half  a  mile  away,  employing  lighters  for  cargo;  re- 
cently, steam  launches  serve  passengers,  heavy  baggage 


PERU  177 

going  in  row  boats.    A  floating  dry  dock  receives  ships  of 
8000  tons. 

RAILWAYS  TO  THE  INTERIOR 

The  Central  Railway.  In  spite  of  the  enormous  diffi- 
culties of  making  a  roadbed  up  a  steep  canon  or  on  the  face 
of  a  bluff,  bridging  torrents,  and  tunneling  side  buttresses 
and  mountain  ranges,  two  railroads,  both  monuments  of 
skill  and  perseverance,  climb  from  the  coast  to  the  plateau, 
the  Central,  and  the  Southern  Railways  of  Peru.  The  first, 
a  standard  gauge  line  from  Callao  begun  in  1870  by  the 
American  financier,  Henry  Meiggs,  was  in  1876  completed 
as  far  as  Chicla,  88  miles.  On  account  of  troubles  resulting 
from  the  Chilian  war,  it  did  not  reach  Oroya,  long  the  ter- 
minus, till  1893.  The  road  follows  up  the  Rimac  Valley, 
which,  however,  is  so  steep  and  narrow  that  detours  into 
side  valleys  are  necessary,  as  into  the  Verrugas,  which  is 
crossed  by  a  bridge  225  feet  high,  one  of  67  bridges  on  the 
journey.  Many  curves,  tunnels,  and  V's  are  also  needed  to 
gain  in  7^2  hours,  with  no  more  than  a  4  per  cent  grade, 
an  elevation  of  15,665  feet  at  a  distance  from  the  sea  in  a 
straight  line  of  less  than  100  miles.  Frequently  the  floor  of 
the  canon  has  room  only  for  the  rushing  stream,  and  the 
road  passes  high  up  on  the  slope  or  cliff,  at  one  point,  575 
feet,  or  through  one  of  the  57  tunnels.  Some  of  the  cliffs 
are  more  than  one  third  of  a  mile  in  perpendicular  height. 
The  road  is  considered  in  some  respects  the  most  wonderful 
of  the  world's  railways.  A  branch  10  miles  long  from  Ticlio 
to  Morococha,  reaching  an  altitude  of  15,865  feet,  a  trifle 
above  that  of  Mont  Blanc,  is  absolutely  the  highest  railway 
in  the  world.  At  Ticlio,  the  highest  point  of  the  main  line, 
is  entered  the  Galera  tunnel,  three  quarters  of  a  mile  long, 
which  cuts  through  the  continental  divide.  The  road  then 
descends  to  Oroya,  altitude  12,178  feet.  In  taking  the  trip 
for  pleasure  or  business  one  not  absolutely  sure  of  the  sound- 


178  THE  WEST  COAST 

ness  of  his  heart  should  have  it  examined,  or  at  least  should 
stop  over  two  days  at  Matucana,  7788  feet,  where  there  is  a 
fairly  comfortable  hotel.  Any  one  is  liable  to  suffer  some- 
what from  soroche,  which  may  be  avoided  by  the  stop-over. 
In  general  persons  of  good  constitution,  not  too  full  blooded, 
will  be  troubled  only  by  a  headache,  perhaps  accompanied  by 
nausea,  and  those  who  are  careful  to  avoid  rapid  walking  or 
over  exertion  of  any  kind  for  a  day  or  two  after  arrival  above, 
and  who  do  not  overeat  before  setting  out  on  the  journey  or 
afterwards  may  suffer  no  inconvenience  whatever.  No  liquor 
of  any  kind  should  be  used  except  in  collapse  from  heart  failure. 
Ammonia  is  desirable  in  case  of  headache. 

From  Oroya,  terminus  of  the  direct  line,  there  are  branches 
to  the  north  and  south  over  the  plateau.  To  reach  the  montana 
interior,  which  is  more  accessible  here  than  from  any  other 
point  in  Peru,  one  may  go  by  automobile  over  another  range 
a  thousand  feet  above,  and  beyond  this,  down,  down,  down 
into  the  montana.  Tarma  at  10,000  feet  has  a  delightful  cli- 
mate, and  here  are  trees,  perhaps  the  first  seen  in  Peru,  grow- 
ing as  it  were  of  their  own  accord.  The  picturesque  canon 
below  is  lined  with  verdure,  here  and  there  are  entrances 
to  side  valleys.  Tunnels  and  romantic  swinging  bridges  for- 
merly lent  variety  to  the  ride.  The  new  automobile  road 
opens  up  a  rich  and  delightfully  attractive  country.  La 
Merced,  altitude  3000  feet,  is  quite  a  little  town  with  a  pleas- 
ant summer  climate. 

A  short  distance  farther  is  the  Perene,  a  coffee  planta- 
tion, at  2500  feet,  belonging  to  the  Peruvian  Corporation. 
The  estate  of  5,000,000  acres  is  not  half  cultivated,  though 
\y2  million  coffee  trees  had  been  planted  in  1903.  At  this 
altitude  the  country  is  still  in  the  foothills  of  the  Andes 
with  steep  slopes  on  every  hand,  a  narrow  way  only  ex- 
tending along  the  river  bank.  The  Perene  is  a  considerable 
stream  easily  navigable,  an  affluent  of  the  Tambo,  which 
flows  into  the  Ucayali;  but  the  stream  goes  south  a  long 
distance  around,  and  through  a  region  inhabited  by  savage 


PERU  179 

Indians.  It  is  therefore  not  used.  The  Chunchi  Indians 
living  close  by  are  fine  looking  people  and  friendly,  some- 
times working  on  the  plantation.  This  plantation  is  on  the 
main  and  mail  route  from  Lima  to  Iquitos,  capital  of  Loreto, 
to  which  with  good  luck  a  journey  may  be  made  in  15  days. 
Seven  days  are  spent  between  Oroya  and  Puerto  Jessup, 
then  one  in  canoe  to  Puerto  Bermudez,  and  5  or  6  in  steam 
launch  to  Iquitos,  where  a  steamer  may  be  taken  to  Manaos, 
Para,  or  New  York. 

A  branch  railway  line,  American  owned,  built  by  the 
Cerro  de  Pasco  Copper  Company,  extends  north  from  Oroya 
to  Cerro  de  Pasco,  about  90  miles  over  a  hilly  country,  past 
Lake  Junin.  Along  the  way  many  Quichua  Indians  are  seen, 
the  chief  population  of  the  plateau  region.  Cerro  de  Pasco, 
the  terminus  of  the  road  from  Oroya,  is  a  town  of  15,000 
population  at  an  altitude  of  14,300  feet.  A  branch  railway 
leads  to  Goyllarisquisga,  26  miles,  another  to  Quishuar- 
cancha,  1 1  miles,  to  their  coal  properties. 

Another  branch  or  a  continuation  of  the  Central  Rail- 
way runs  south  on  the  plateau  in  the  valley  of  the  Jauja 
River  past  a  city  of  that  name,  population  3000,  altitude 
11,050  feet,  a  resort  for  consumptives  for  whom  the  coast 
is  too  damp.  Seventy-eight  miles  from  Oroya  at  Huancayo, 
population  6000,  the  road  halted  some  years,  but  lately  build- 
ing has  recommenced  and  the  road  is  probably  open  some 
miles  farther.  Construction  is  proceeding  in  the  direction 
of  Ayacucho  to  continue  from  there  to  Cuzco.  By  the  time 
this  is  accomplished  a  long  stretch  of  the  Pan  American 
Road  will  be  completed,  probably  from  the  Callejon  de 
Huailas  to  Lake  Titicaca,  but  the  crossing  of  three  canons, 
one  3000  feet  deep,  makes  this  an  expensive  job. 

The  Southern  Railway  of  Peru,  also  planned  and  partly 
constructed  by  Henry  Meiggs  before  he  commenced  the 
Central,  begins  at  the  port  of  Mollendo;  after  a  few  miles 
along  the  beach  it  climbs  the  high  bluff  on  the  side  of  pro- 
jecting buttresses,  winding  about  till  it  reaches  the  edge 


180  THE  WEST  COAST 

of  the  desert  plateau  3000  feet  above.  Then  it  proceeds  on 
the  almost  imperceptibly  inclined  desert,  presently  along 
the  edge  of  the  Vitor  Valley,  107  miles,  to  the  beautifully 
situated  Arequipa,  population  50,000,  altitude  7550  feet. 

The  city  is  on  the  lower  slope  of  El  Misti,  partly  in  the 
valley  of  the  Chili  River  which  flows  between  Misti,  19,200 
feet,  and  Chachani  a  little  higher.  Arequipa  has  a  fine 
cathedral,  and  cultured  society,  but  poor  hotels.  A  good  one, 
opened  prematurely  some  years  ago,  unfortunately  failed; 
it  would  be  a  great  success  now.  In  the  crater  of  Misti 
are  pure  sulphur  crystals,  with  some  of  which  I  once  filled 
my  pocket;  but  other  sources  are  more  accessible.  Much 
business  is  transacted  in  the  city,  this  being  the  centre  of 
commerce  for  Southern  Peru,  an  immense  district  with 
many  towns  and  mining  centres  on  and  off  the  railroad. 
At  least  one  night  must  be  spent  here  on  the  way  up,  and 
several  days  are  desirable  both  for  business  and  to  become 
proof  against  soroche.  The  city  is  the  site  of  the  machine 
shops  for  the  railway,  which  with  526  miles  of  track  is  the 
longest  in  the  Republic.  From  Vitor  between  Mollendo  and 
Arequipa  an  automobile  road  is  to  be  constructed  to  the  Majes 
Valley  and  Chuquibamba. 

From  Arequipa  there  are  semi-  or  tri-weekly  trains  to 
Cuzco  and  Puno.  The  road  winds  around  the  desert  slopes 
of  Chachani  to  the  higher  land  beyond.  From  the  divide, 
14,688  feet,  the  descent  is  gradual  to  Puno  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  Titicaca,  219  miles  from  Arequipa. 

At  Juliaca,  30  miles  before  Puno,  the  line  branches  north 
towards  Cuzco,  210  miles,  a  journey  of  a  day  and  a  half. 
Sleeping  cars  run  from  Arequipa.  The  highest  point  on  the 
north  division  is  14,153  feet.  Cuzco  itself  is  at  an  altitude 
of  11,445  feet-  The  place,  almost  surrounded  by  hills,  has 
a  more  genial  climate  than  might  be  expected  at  this  alti- 
tude. The  appearance  of  the  country  is  very  different  from 
that  near  Cerro  de  Pasco  with  more  green  and  a  milder 
atmosphere.  Cuzco  is  said  once  to  have  had  a  population 


PERU  181 

of  400,000,  instead  of  the  present  30,000.  Some  progress  has 
been  made  since  railway  connection  was  established  in  1908; 
a  decent  hotel,  the  Pullman,  has  superseded  the  apologies 
for  one  then  available.  The  population  is  chiefly  Indian, 
and  many  come  in  from  the  surrounding  country  to  the 
markets.  The  Department,  a  very  rich  but  undeveloped 
section,  is  on  the  border  where  Quichuas  and  Aymaras 
mingle. 

From  the  port  of  Puno,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca, 
altitude  12,500  feet,  there  is,  in  connection  with  the  railway, 
steamboat  service  (an  all  night  journey)  to  Guaqui,  at  the 
south  end  of  the  lake.  Here  is  railroad  connection  for  La 
Paz,  a  three  hours  ride,  all  under  the  management  of  the 
Peruvian  Corporation,  a  British  company  which  controls 
also  the  Central  Railway  and  most  of  the  short  lines  from 
the  various  ports ;  the  Corporation  has  further  among  other 
concessions  one  for  the  export  of  guano. 

PROPOSED  RAILWAY  EXTENSION 

It  is  evident  that  the  railways  of  this  great  country  which 
nowhere  touch  the  vast  montana  region  and  which  leave  des- 
titute most  of  the  towns  of  the  sierra  district,  are  totally 
inadequate  for  its  development.  However  delightful  the 
climate  or  rich  the  country  in  agricultural  or  mineral  re- 
sources, few  persons  in  the  present  age  will  settle  in  regions 
remote  from  cities  in  time  if  not  in  distance,  and  where  the 
interchange  of  products  is  almost  impossible  for  lack  of 
means  of  transportation.  The  leaders  of  the  Government 
are  well  aware  of  this  fact  and  are  doing  their  utmost  to 
promote  railway  development,  both  through  their  own 
initiative  and  by  their  willingness  to  grant  favorable  terms 
and,  to  some  extent,  guaranteed  concessions  to  foreign  cap- 
italists. The  importance  of  connecting  the  coast  and  sierra 
cities,  and  these  with  the  Amazon  Basin  and  river  trans- 
portation to  the  Atlantic  is  perfectly  apparent.  The  ideal 


182  THE  WEST  COAST 

is  for  three  or  four  railways  serving  different  sections  to  ex- 
tend from  coast  ports  up  over  the  mountains  down  to  the 
navigable  waters  of  the  Amazon  affluents,  and  that  such 
roads  should  be  connected  by  a  north  and  south  line  in  the 
sierra  country  as  a  part  of  the  great  Pan  American  system 
long  ago  planned.  Branches  would  diverge  from  all  of  these 
lines,  thus  opening  up  large  mineral  deposits  for  operation, 
and  the  rich  agricultural  lands  of  the  nwntana  for  settlement 
and  commerce. 

For  a  long  time  several  routes  have  been  under  discus- 
sion and  some  concessions  have  been  granted,  which  mis- 
management or  the  difficulty  of  getting  capitalists  to  invest 
in  so  remote  a  field  have  rendered  abortive.  Therefore  there 
is  still  discussion;  and  opportunities  for  construction  are 
open. 

Beginning  at  the  north  the  first  cross  line  proposed  is 
that  in  the  Department  Piura,  continuing  the  road  from  the 
good  port  of  Paita  to  Puerto  Molendez,  Calantura,  or  Limon, 
on  the  Maranon  River  below  the  Pongo  de  Manserriche. 
This  plan  has  the  great  advantage  of  crossing  the  Andes 
at  its  lowest  point,  6600  feet.  An  important  consideration 
is  that  it  would  make  practicable  the  export  from  Paita  of 
rubber  which  is  now  carried  from  Iquitos  by  way  of  the 
Amazon  and  Para;  the  far  shorter  journey  by  sea  from 
Paita  to  New  York,  easily  made  within  ten  days,  would  more 
than  counterbalance  the  rail  freight  from  the  river  port 
400  miles  to  Paita.  It  would  surely  be  a  better  route  for 
business  men  and  offers  other  advantages;  among  these 
access  to  coal  and  iron  mines  en  route. 

Another  transcontinental  route  proposed  is  from  some 
point  connected  with  the  Central  Railway  which  has  already 
surmounted  the  divide.  A  route  on  which  much  money  has 
been  spent  for  engineering  investigation,  surveys,  and  other- 
wise is  from  Cerro  de  Pasco  or  Goyllarisquisga  to  Pucalpa 
or  some  other  point  on  the  Ucayali.  This  central  road  for 
political  reasons  seems  extremely  desirable.  It  would  open 


PERU  183 

up  the  fine  grazing  lands  of  the  Pampa  Sacramento,  and 
rich  alluvial  gold  deposits  in  or  on  several  streams,  as  well 
as  the  forest  and  rubber  country.  Another  suggestion  is  to 
continue  the  road  directly  east  from  Oroya  down  to  the 
Perene  River  and  to  Puerto  Wertheman;  a  better  may  be 
to  build  175  miles  from  Matahuasi,  a  station  on  the  Oroya- 
Huancayo  Railway,  to  Jesus  Marie  on  the  Ene  River  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Pangoa,  where  12  feet  of  water  would 
permit  of  commerce  by  large  steamers  by  way  of  the  Tambo 
and  Ucayali. 

One  important  cross  route  would  naturally  be  by  the 
Southern  Railway,  from  a  point  on  the  Cuzco  branch,  Tira- 
pata,  Urcos,  or  Cuzco,  the  earlier  plans  looking  to  a  connec- 
tion with  the  Madre  de  Dios  River.  But  as  this  route 
would  necessitate  a  long  roundabout  journey,  as  well  as  a 
passage  through  Bolivia  and  freightage  on  the  Madeira- 
Mamore  Railway,  the  Government  has  recently  undertaken 
for  itself  a  line  from  Cuzco  to  Santa  Ana  on  the  Urubamba, 
by  which  the  journey  is  greatly  shortened  and  will  be  wholly 
within  the  Republic  as  far  as  Brazil,  following  down  the 
Urubamba  and  Ucayali  to  the  Amazon  and  Iquitos.  The 
drawback  to  this  route  is  that  only  very  light  draught 
steamers  can  come  up  to  Santa  Ana  at  any  season  of  the 
year. 

Lines  quoted  as  under  construction  by  the  Peruvian 
Government  in  1919  are  that  from  Chimbote  up  the  Huailas 
Valley  to  Recuay,  already  referred  to,  which  when  completed 
will  be  immediately  profitable,  the  continuation  of  the  road 
from  Huancayo  to  Cuzco,  now  open  30  miles  from  the 
former  city ;  and  the  Cuzco  to  Santa  Ana  just  mentioned. 
A  short  line  recently  opened  from  Lima  to  Lurin,  crossing 
the  Pachacamac  River,  brings  two  fertile  valleys  with  their 
fruit  and  vegetables  into  close  connection  with  the  capital. 
Lurin  is  but  16  miles  from  the  suburb  Chorillos,  which  for 
some  years  has  had  railway  service.  The  ancient  pre-Inca 
ruins  at  Pachacamac  are  now  easily  accessible. 


184  THE  WEST  COAST 

The  Longitudinal  or  Pan  American  Railway,  crossing  all 
the  others,  would  come  in  at  the  north  from  Cuenca  and 
Loja  in  Ecuador,  continuing  to  Huancabamba,  Jaen,  and 
Cajamarca  in  that  Department,  thence  down  the  valley  to 
the  Santa  River,  there  joining  the  railway  to  Recuay,  which 
will  be  prolonged  to  Goyllarisquisga.  By  this  time  the  con- 
nection will  be  complete  to  Cuzco,  and  so  to  La  Paz,  La 
Quiaca,  and  Buenos  Aires. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
PERU:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

AGRICULTURE 

While  for  centuries  Peru  has  been  celebrated  as  a  land 
of  marvelous  mineral  riches,  especially  of  gold  and  silver, 
nevertheless,  in  spite  of  her  desert  shore,  her  bleak  table- 
land, and  her  undeveloped  montafia,  like  California,  her 
chief  wealth  is  in  her  agriculture.  What  the  figures  say 
about  the  exports  is  easily  ascertainable ;  but  though  cor- 
roborating this  statement  they  do  not  tell  all  the  story, 
since  most  of  the  mineral  production  is  exported,  while  the 
greater  part  of  the  agricultural  stays  at  home.  Of  the  latter, 
sugar  is  the  leading  product. 

Sugar  grows  along  the  coast  and,  where  opportunity 
offers,  up  to  a  height  of  4500  feet ;  in  the  montafia  to  a  height 
of  6000  feet.  At  present  most  of  it  is  raised  near  the  coast. 
The  Chicama  Valley,  famed  for  its  splendid  estates,  pro- 
duces more  sugar  than  the  entire  Island  of  Porto  Rico,  and 
this  of  the  finest  quality.  In  the  temperate,  equable  climate, 
the  cane  matures  early  and  may  be  cut  all  the  year  around. 
It  is  unusually  rich  in  sucrose.  Some  estates  are  15-20 
miles  square,  producing  15,000-30,000  tons  each;  50-60  tons 
of  cane  to  the  acre  is  quite  usual.  The  cane  is  cut  and 
ground  from  18  to  24  months  after  planting,  and  being  cut 
throughout  the  year  instead  of  during  four  or  five  months 
only,  the  same  amount  of  work  may  be  done  with  far  less 
machinery  and  fewer  laborers.  In  places  a  two  months 
suspension  is  made,  when  the  river  is  full,  to  attend  to  irri- 
gation and  to  clean  or  repair  machinery,  etc. 

185 


186  THE  WEST  COAST 

The  cane  has  more  than  14  per  cent  sucrose,  often  16 
or  17  per  cent.  The  returns  have  nowhere  been  surpassed; 
the  production  to  the  acre  is  double  that  of  Cuba,  where  the 
average  is  23-24  tons,  in  Peru  45-50  tons.  At  Cartavio,  an 
estate  of  29,000  acres  in  the  Chicama  Valley,  they  once  cut 
79.8  long  tons  of  cane  per  acre  from  a  field  of  85  acres. 
This  had  15.24  per  cent  sucrose  and  gave  12  tons  of  sugar 
an  acre,  a  probable  record.  The  grinding  capacity  is  1000 
metric  tons  in  23  hours.  In  1917  they  ground  240,000  tons 
making  34,000  tons  of  sugar,  mostly  white  granulated.  The 
Casa  Grande  in  the  same  valley,  said  to  be  the  largest  estate 
in  the  world,  has  a  population  of  11,000.  Churches,  schools, 
hospitals,  and  "movies"  are  provided  for  the  work  people, 
and  the  luxuries  of  modern  life  for  owners  and  superinten- 
dents. In  the  montafia  sugar  cane  is  said  to  grow  to  a 
height  of  30  feet  and  once  planted  to  persist  for  a  century. 
One  writer  speaks  of  two  or  three  crops  from  one  planting, 
but  nine  years  without  replanting  is  not  unusual  on  the 
coast. 

In  the  year  1915-16,  100,000  tons  were  exported  from 
Salaverry,  more  the  year  following;  half  as  much  from  the 
smaller  port  of  Huanchaco  near  by.  Production  in  Peru 
reached  400,000  tons  in  1918.  The  plantation  Tambo  Real, 
on  the  Santa  River  near  Chimbote,  was  recently  sold  for 
$1,750,000.  Just  back  of  the  port  is  plenty  of  good  sugar 
land,  now  desert  but  easily  irrigable.  As  the  nitrates  have 
never  been  washed  out  of  the  land  by  rain,  the  soil  is  of 
extraordinary  fertility;  with  irrigation  the  cane  receives 
the  precise  amount  of  water  required  and  at  the  right  season. 
Back  of  Samanco  are  two  large  sugar  estates,  one  belonging 
to  the  British  Sugar  Company,  which  has  a  larger  at  Canete 
in  the  south,  producing  long  ago  30,000  tons  a  year.  One 
estate  had  years  ago  22  miles  of  tramway  which  was  to  be 
increased.  In  some  places  small  farmers  owning  or  renting 
land  sell  their  cane  to  sugar  mills.  Most  of  the  estates 
have  the  best  of  machinery.  In  1911  $100,000  worth  of 


PERU  187 

sugar  machinery  was  imported  into  one  Department,  Lam- 
bayeque.  Labor  is  cheaper  than  in  Cuba,  formerly  60  cents 
a  day,  but  with  housing  and  other  perquisites.  Much  sugar 
has  been  exported  to  Chile;  recently  to  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  Some  years  ago  sugar  could  be  sold  at  a 
port  at  a  profit  for  1.5  cents  a  pound,  more  recently  at  2.5 
cents.  There  is  still  a  field  for  investment  in  desert  land, 
suitable  for  those  with  sufficient  capital  to  arrange  for  irri- 
gation. About  600,000  acres  are  now  devoted  to  sugar. 

Cotton.  Native  to  the  country  is  cotton,  and  Peru  has 
its  own  special  variety,  Gossypium  Peruvianum.  It  is  so  soft 
and  fine  that  it  is  called  vegetable  wool,  and  it  is  much 
used  for  weaving  underwear,  stockings,  etc.,  with  wool, 
which  it  even  improves,  as  the  cloth  is  less  liable  to  shrink- 
age than  all  wool.  This  variety  grows  to  a  height  of  10-16 
feet,  giving  a  first  small  crop  in  eight  months,  but  not  reach- 
ing its  best  until  the  sixth  year.  It  holds  out  well  through 
drought,  requiring  but  one  irrigation  yearly.  The  trees  are 
planted  15  feet  apart,  the  interspace  being  occupied  with 
vegetables  and  corn.  No  ploughing  is  necessary  and  two 
crops  a  year  are  obtained.  With  the  names  full  rough  and 
moderate  rough  it  is  mixed  with  wool  for  textile  manufac- 
ture. Piura  is  its  special  habitat,  but  it  grows  well  in  lea 
at  the  south. 

The  Egyptian,  the  Sea  Island,  or  the  ordinary  American 
are  preferred  by  some  growers  on  account  of  their  earlier 
development.  The  Egyptian  is  cultivated  in  lea  from  the 
shore  to  60  miles  inland,  also  in  Lima;  the  Sea  Island  and 
the  Peruvian  Mitafifi,  similar  to  the  Egyptian,  near  Huacho 
and  Supe ;  the  smooth  cotton  from  ordinary  American  seed 
anywhere.  The  Egyptian,  also  called  Upland,  grows  to  about 
four  feet,  yielding  two  or  three  years,  beginning  six  months 
after  sowing.  It  needs  several  waterings,  but  has  an  ad- 
vantage in  being  free  from  weevil  blight.  This  and  the 
ordinary  American  are  the  most  popular  varieties.  Peru  is 
twelfth  among  world  producers,  needing  only  more  irrigated 


188  THE  WEST  COAST 

land  for  greatly  increased  production.  There  is  water 
enough  but  labor  and  capital  have  been  wanting.  All  con- 
ditions are  favorable  as  in  Egypt.  The  length  of  the  various 
cotton  fibres  is  given  as:  Sea  Island,  1.61  inches;  Egyptian, 
1.41 ;  Peruvian,  1.30;  Brazilian,  1.17;  American  upland,  1.02; 
Indian,  0.8. 

Coffee.  An  important  product  is  coffee,  the  best  said 
to  be  grown  in  the  sierra  region ;  but  the  finest  I  ever  drank 
was  raised  on  a  small  plantation  back  of  Samanco,  where 
it  was  roasted,  ground,  and  made  within  the  hour,  of  course 
pulverized  and  dripped  as  universally  in  South  America. 
In  the  deep  valleys  at  the  east  also,  excellent  coffee  is  grown : 
in  Puno,  in  the  Chanchamayo  and  the  Perene  valleys,  called 
the  montana  by  the  sierra  people,  in  Huanuco  farther  north, 
in  the  Paucartambo  valley  of  Cuzco  south,  as  well  as  in  the 
Pacasmayo  and  other  coast  sections.  Five  hundred  plants  are 
set  to  the  acre,  800  in  the  Perene,  which  produce  each  2  pounds 
annually.  Even  with  a  low  price  for  coffee  its  production  is 
profitable  there,  in  spite  of  the  one  time  $60  a  ton  freight  rate 
to  Callao ;  large  profits  are  made  at  good  prices.  After  supply- 
ing home  consumption  there  is  a  considerable  export. 

Cacao.  The  production  of  cacao,  which  grows  wild  in 
the  montana,  should  be  greatly  increased.  The  Department 
of  Cuzco  produces  a  particularly  fine  article  with  exquisite  taste 
and  aroma,  which  brings  a  higher  price  than  that  of  Brazil 
or  Ecuador,  though  little  known  outside  of  the  country.  In  the 
Perene  Valley  a  plantation  of  200,000  trees  has  been  set  out. 
Vast  tracts  in  the  Departments  of  Amazonas  and  San  Martin 
and  in  the  Province  of  Jaen  are  also  suited  to  its  growth. 

Coca.  The  culture  of  coca  is  important,  but  more  limited 
as  to  future  development  since  its  medicinal  use  should  not 
be  greatly  increased  and  its  general  use  not  at  all.  The  plant 
is  a  shrub,  usually  six  feet  high,  cultivated  in  the  districts 
of  Otuzco  (the  most  important)  and  Huamachuco  (Libertad), 
Huanta  (Ayacucho),  Cuzco,  and  Huanuco.  It  grows  best  in 
valleys  of  3000  to  7000  feet  altitude,  where  the  temperature 


PERU  189 

varies  from  60°  to  85°,  in  clayey  but  not  marshy  ground, 
with  iron  but  no  salt.  It  needs  frequent  rains  and  humidity. 
Three  or  four  crops  may  be  picked  annually,  the  first  in  18 
months;  the  yield  continues  40  years.  Care  is  needed  in 
picking  the  leaves  and  in  drying.  A  great  quantity  is  con- 
sumed by  the  Indians,  and  some  is  exported  to  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  both  as  dried  leaves  for  making  wines, 
tonics,  etc.,  and  for  the  extraction  of  alkaloid ;  also  as  cocaine 
for  the  making  of  which  over  20  small  factories  exist  in 
Peru.  Chewing  coca  leaves  is  of  great  service  on  the  plateau 
for  necessary  and  unusual  exertion,  but  injurious  and  stu- 
pefying when  its  use  is  continuous. 

Rice  is  grown  in  the  north  in  Lambayeque  and  in  the 
Pacasmayo  Valley  of  Libertad.  With  one  flooding  and 
little  ploughing  the  crops  are  produced  annually,  46,000  tons 
in  1917.  A  little  is  exported  but  more  is  imported.  The 
two  varieties  grown  are  Carolina  and  Jamaica.  The  straw 
is  not  utilized. 

Fruits  of  various  kinds  may  be  grown  in  all  the  coast 
valleys,  but  south  of  Lima  the  culture,  especially  of  grapes, 
is  more  advanced.  Even  in  poor  years  it  is  said  that  the 
grape  crop  is  superior  to  the  European  average;  but  too 
little  attention  has  been  paid  to  improving  and  extending  the 
industry.  The  vineyards  are  small  and  combined  with  the 
other  interests  of  a  hacienda.  The  grapes  are  grown  on  stocks 
about  eight  feet  apart,  supported  first  by  canes,  later  by  trel- 
lises on  adobe  columns.  Nine  hundred  gallons  of  wine  an  acre 
is  an  average  yield.  Italia  and  Abilla  are  cultivated  for  white 
wines,  Quebranta,  Moscatel,  and  others  for  red ;  the  former  of 
these  two  being  most  prolific  and  generally  grown.  A  pink 
Italia  is  a  fine  table  fruit.  Wines  cheap  and  good  are  manu- 
factured to  the  amount  of  2,200,000  gallons  yearly,  and  770,000 
gallons  of  pisco,  made  from  white  grapes,  also  quantities  of 
alcohol.  The  sugar  of  the  montana  is  used  to  make  aguardiente 
or  rum;  in  several  coast  districts  a  finer  quality  is  made  from 
grapes  and  is  probably  what  in  some  sections  is  called  pisco. 


190  THE  WEST  COAST 

Peru  is  rich  in  the  variety  of  fruit  possibilities,  but 
grapes  and  olives  are  the  only  ones  cultivated  in  a  large 
way,  with  a  view  to  commercial  profit.  Olives  grown  in  the 
south  from  imported  trees  are  said  to  excel  those  of  Spain 
or  California.  About  70,000  pounds  are  exported.  The  yield 
of  oil  is  about  30  per  cent;  not  enough  is  made  for  home 
consumption.  Large  possibilities  exist  in  this  direction. 
Other  fruits  grown  are  of  course  oranges,  bananas,  melons, 
pomegranates,  paltas,  or  aguacates,  or  as  we  call  them,  alligator 
pears,  fine  as  properly  eaten,  the  half  fruit  with  salad  dressing 
inside;  chirimoias,  when  in  perfection  nothing  better;  straw- 
berries nearly  all  the  year  around  at  Lima,  more  like  the  wild 
fruit  with  delicate  flavor;  prickly  pears,  peanuts,  pears,  cher- 
ries, etc. 

Vegetables  in  great  variety  are  raised,  some  like  ours, 
others  never  before  met  with.  Potatoes  in  many  varieties 
grow  up  to  an  altitude  of  13,000  feet  or  more.  The  wild 
bitter  tuber  from  which  the  varieties  were  probably  de- 
veloped still  grows  wild.  Knock  says  the  yellow  potato 
(not  sweet)  is  unrivalled  for  excellence,  but  I  saw  none 
superior  to  the  best  of  our  white.  Other  tubers  cultivated 
are  the  yam  (three  crops  a  year),  manioc,  and  others. 

Maize.  The  best  maize  in  the  world,  says  Vivian,  is 
grown  in  Peru;  but  I  am  sure  that  he  never  ate  any  sweet 
corn  in  Rhode  Island.  Grown  in  all  parts  of  the  country 
up  to  11,500  feet,  it  is  native,  like  potatoes  and  cotton,  and 
is  one  of  the  main  stays  of  the  country.  Maize  and  potatoes 
are  the  chief  foods  of  the  Indians.  Parched  corn  is  much 
eaten  on  the  plateau ;  it  is  most  useful  where  bread  is  not  to 
be  had,  and  often  is  to  be  preferred.  Toasted  maize  is  called 
concha.  Three,  sometimes  four,  crops  are  had  annually.  Food 
for  man  and  beast,  the  stalks  used  for  fodder,  it  is  all  con- 
sumed in  the  country.  That  grown  near  Cuzco  is  said  to 
be  of  the  finest  quality,  with  grains  the  size  of  large  beans, 
a  very  thin  pellicle,  and  very  farinaceous.  One  district  in 
Lima  produces  10,000  tons  a  year. 


PERU  191 

Cereals  are  raised,  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  from  5000 
to  11,500  feet.  Wheat  formerly  grown  on  the  coast  is  now 
seen  on  the  uplands,  but  large  importations  of  wheat  and 
flour  are  made.  Barley  grows  to  a  greater  height,  12,000 
feet  or  more  and  is  much  used  for  animal  fodder,  for  mules 
and  horses,  taking  the  place  of  oats,  which  are  not  much 
cultivated.  Alfalfa,  much  better  for  fodder  than  barley,  is 
largely  used,  growing  in  sheltered  places  up  to  12,000  feet, 
about  the  same  as  maize.  A  specialty  of  Peru  and  Bolivia 
is  quinua,  which  is  very  prolific  and  grows  freely  in  poor  soil 
from  9000  up  to  13,500  feet.  It  would  be  well  if  it  were  widely 
cultivated  in  other  countries.  Suitable  conditions  could  be 
found  in  many  places  not  necessarily  at  such  altitudes.  For 
many  purposes  it  seems  preferable  to  corn  meal.  It  may  be 
eaten  raw  with  sugar  or  water  or  cooked  as  mush ;  it  is  called 
a  tonic  for  soroche.  The  grains  are  round,  about  the  size  of 
mustard  seed. 

Tobacco  is  raised  to  a  small  extent,  especially  in  Tumbes 
and  adjoining  districts.  It  is  called  of  superior  quality,  and 
is  preferred  by  some  Peruvians  to  the  imported,  but  it  is 
too  strong  and  coarse  for  many;  the  upper  class  Peruvians 
generally  prefer  Havanas.  Perhaps  1000  tons  are  produced, 
some  of  which  is  exported  to  Bolivia,  Chile,  and  Brazil.  The 
Government  has  a  monopoly  of  its  sale,  regulating  price  and 
profits  of  native  and  imported  both,  and  owning  the  cigar- 
ette factories. 

Ramie  grass  and  haricot  beans  produce  each  four  crops 
a  year,  flax  and  hemp,  two  crops;  the  castor  oil  plant  is 
cultivated,  and  at  the  south  the  mulberry  with  the  silk- 
worm. 

FORESTRY 

Forest  products  except  rubber  have  received  little  attention, 
although  the  export  of  tagua,  vegetable  ivory,  has  greatly  in- 
creased within  the  last  ten  years.  The  palm  grows  wild  in  the 


192  THE  WEST  COAST 

montana.  The  nuts  are  picked  up  by  the  Indians  and  carried 
to  Iquitos,  thence  sent  to  Europe.  They  are  also  used  in  the 
forest  for  curing  rubber,  the  only  industry  of  much  importance 
in  this  section. 

Rubber  for  years  has  been  exported  in  considerable 
quantities,  at  first  collected  from  districts  on  the  tributaries 
of  the  Maranon,  later  from  those  of  the  Ucayali.  Earlier  the 
rubber  gatherers  called  caucheros  cut  down  the  caucho  trees, 
a  hole  in  the  ground  having  been  previously  prepared  to  re- 
ceive the  milk,  which  was  then  coagulated  by  a  solution  of  soap 
with  the  juice  of  a  native  plant  called  vetilla.  This  method  of 
cutting  down  the  trees,  which  still  has  some  vogue  in  other 
countries,  is  now  forbidden  in  Peru.  The  caucho  here  aver- 
ages 100  pounds  to  a  tree.  It  was  exported  in  planks  or  cakes 
weighing  80  to  100  pounds  each.  The  jebe,  rubber  of  the  finest 
quality  passing  for  the  best  Para  fine,  conies  from  the  hevea 
brasiliensis  or  other  species  of  hevea.  These  trees  are  found 
lower  down  than  the  castilloa  elastica  (from  which  comes  the 
caucho}  at  an  altitude  of  about  300  feet,  where  it  grows  to  a 
height  of  60  to  70  feet.  By  tapping  the  hevea,  about  20  pounds 
yearly  of  rubber  is  obtained.  Peru's  rubber  export  1908-12 
averaged  4^2-5^2  million  pounds  worth  20  to  30  million  dol- 
lars ;  but  the  lowering  of  price  due  to  the  Ceylon  plantations,  and 
perhaps  the  discovery  of  atrocities  practiced  upon  the  Indians 
in  some  quarters  greatly  diminished  the  export  for  some  years. 
It  seems  to  be  reviving.  In  1916  $3,400,000  worth  was  ex- 
ported. Better  regulations  have  been  made  and  the  possibility 
of  arranging  a  system  of  plantations  is  discussed.  Nearly  all 
the  rubber  is  exported  from  Iquitos ;  but  some  from  the  Madre 
de  Dios  section,  the  Inambari,  and  the  Urubamba  goes  out  by 
way  of  Mollendo.  The  export  duty  of  Peru,  8  per  cent,  has 
been  much  less  than  that  of  Brazil. 

Other  forest  products,  which  now  receive  little  attention, 
include  all  kinds  of  valuable  timbers,  medicinal  plants,  dye 
woods,  etc.,  usual  in  a  tropical  forest. 


PERU  193 


STOCK  RAISING 

Cattle.  The  cattle  industry  is  one  of  large  importance, 
pasturage  beginning  in  the  foot-hills  of  the  coast,  and  going  up 
to  13,000  feet  or  more.  The  large  ranches  are  in  the  sierra, 
some  having  20,000  cattle  and  500,000  sheep.  Cattle  are  raised 
in  Cajamarca,  Junin,  Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  and  Puno.  The  beef 
is  apt  to  be  tough,  badly  cut,  and  is  better  boiled  than 
roasted.  Cross  breeding  with  Argentine  or  other  stock 
would  improve  it  greatly,  and  attention  is  being  paid  to  the 
matter.  The  pasture  lands  are  called  excellent.  Hides  are 
quite  largely  exported  and  cattle  are  imported  from  Argen- 
tina and  Chile,  chiefly  for  slaughter,  a  few  for  stock.  Mutton 
is  largely  eaten  in  the  sierra. 

Wool  is  an  important  export,  likely  to  increase,  for  the 
plateau  affords  ample  space,  with  good  wild  grasses.  The 
native  sheep  have  rather  long  legs  and  a  rough  scanty 
fleece;  crossed  with  merinos  they  give  more  wool.  Good 
stock  was  brought  from  Punta  Arenas  some  years  ago  with 
an  experienced  manager,  and  near  Lake  Junin  a  big  ranch 
has  been  developing  on  130  square  miles.  There  is  no  finer 
country  for  sheep  raising  than  the  high  valleys  of  the 
plateau.  Alpacas,  vicunas  and  llamas  also  afford  wool,  the 
first  two  of  much  greater  value.  The  vicuna  wool  is  the  finest, 
but  there  are  so  few  of  the  animals  that  the  export  is  small. 
That  of  alpaca,  however,  is  greater  than  that  of  wool,  at  least 
in  value.  The  larger  part  of  the  world's  supply  of  the  genuine 
article  comes  from  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  plateau.  The 
llama,  the  great  burden  bearer,  has  a  heavy  but  coarse  fleece, 
yet  some  of  it  is  exported.  There  are  more  of  these  three 
animals  in  Bolivia.  The  Indians  are  expert  in  their  care.  The 
guanaco  is  a  larger  animal,  somewhat  similar,  which  has  never 
been  domesticated,  and  is  hunted  by  the  Indians  for  food. 
The  chinchilla,  and  the  viscacha,  the  Peruvian  hare,  are  hunted 
for  their  skins.  Many  pigs  are  raised  and  lard  is  exported. 


194  THE  WEST  COAST 

Horses.  The  horses  are  rather  small,  but  are  very  fine 
saddle  animals.  Some  have  five  distinct  gaits.  I  found 
them  more  sure-footed  than  mules,  going  up  and  down 
veritable  rock  stairways  with  ease.  They  are  to  some  extent 
originally  of  Arabian  stock. 

Fish  of  the  finest  quality  of  40  or  more  varieties  and  in 
great  abundance  are  found  off  the  coast;  large  lobsters, 
scallops,  the  corbina,  cod,  sole,  smelt,  mackerel,  and  many 
others  are  caught. 

Guano.  There  are  seals  on  the  islands  and  an  enormous 
number  of  sea-birds,  which  have  made  the  great  deposits 
of  guano  on  the  islands.  As  there  was  no  rain  the  deposits 
have  been  preserved  for  centuries  without  loss  of  the  nitro- 
gen of  which  there  is  14  per  cent.  The  islands  occur  singly 
or  in  groups  along  the  coast,  some  far  out  beyond  the  track 
of  the  steamers.  All  are  barren  and  uninhabited.  The 
Chincha  Islands  had  enormous  deposits  now  exhausted. 
There  has  been  much  waste,  and  deposits  have  been  removed 
so  ruthlessly  as  to  disturb  the  birds;  but  now  there  are 
careful  regulations.  Agreement  was  made  some  years  ago 
with  the  Peruvian  Corporation  (British)  by  which  they 
were  allotted  2,000,000  tons  of  the  guano;  of  this  they  have 
had  more  than  half;  operations  have  recently  been  restricted 
and  few  shipments  made. 

MINING 

The  mine  fields  of  Peru,  once  famous  for  their  produc- 
tion of  gold  and  silver,  never  wholly  neglected,  were  for  a 
time  less  vigorously  worked.  In  the  days  of  the  Spanish 
colonists  gold  and  silver  were  the  chief  objects  of  acqui- 
sition, but  lately  these  metals  have  seemed  less  fashionable 
than  copper.  The  variety  in  Peru's  wealth  in  minerals  is 
shown  to  some  extent  by  a  list  of  her  production  in  1917 
in  millions  of  pounds  in  round  numbers:  copper,  84;  copper 
matte,  4.4;  copper  ore,  16.5;  vanadium,  7;  lead  ore,  7.5; 


PERU  195 

antimony  ore,  3.75;  silver  ore,  1.76;  tungsten,  i.  Smaller 
quantities  of  other  ores  were  produced :  gold,  2000  pounds ; 
sulphur,  120,000;  metallic  silver,  8000;  silver  concentrates, 
700,000;  precipitated  silver,  10,000;  lead  bullion,  250,000; 
lead  concentrates,  650,000;  zinc  ores,  640,000;  lead  slag, 
177,000;  copper  cement,  145,000;  molybdenum,  12,000;  gold 
ores,  30,500.  Many  other  minerals  exist,  not  exported  in 
large  enough  quantities  to  have  been  given  in  this  list. 

Copper.  Americans  were  slow  to  become  interested  in 
mining  investments  in  South  America  as  in  commercial 
trade,  but  when  assured  of  the  success  of  the  pioneer  enter- 
prise inaugurated  at  Cerro  de  Pasco  by  New  York  capital- 
ists about  1900,  others  followed,  and  large  sums  have  now 
been  invested  in  several  Republics.  Silver  was  discovered 
at  Cerro  de  Pasco  in  1630  and  $200,000,000  were  produced 
in  one  century.  Four  hundred  and  fifty  million  ounces  were 
obtained  by  hand  labor,  the  ore  being  carried  by  llamas  to 
primitive  smelters.  Little  interest  was  taken  in  copper; 
only  ore  with  25-50  per  cent  of  the  metal  was  formerly 
exported.  Here  at  Cerro,  where  is  located,  some  say,  the 
richest  copper  deposit  in  the  world,  the  titanic  forces  of 
nature  cast  upward  a  wonderful  mass  of  material,  gold, 
silver,  copper,  etc.  Here  are  great  open  pits  several  hun- 
dred feet  deep,  worked  for  centuries  for  silver. 

The  Cerro  de  Pasco  Company  has  spent  about  $30,000,- 
ooo  in  acquiring  properties  here  and  at  Morococha,  in  con- 
structing smelters,  railways,  buildings  for  employees,  and 
in  developing  the  properties,  from  which  handsome  returns 
are  now  obtained.  The  property  of  the  Cerro  de  Pasco 
Mining  Company  consists  of  730  mining  claims  and  108 
coal  mining  claims.  N  The  reserves  exceed  3,000,000  tons  of 
copper  ore,  one  estimate  is  75,000,000.  Nearly  every  claim 
carries  ore  with  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  cobalt. 
High  silver  values  exist  to  100  feet  deep,  sometimes  run- 
ning to  thousands  of  ounces  a  ton,  deeper  are  silver  copper 
ores,  and  lower  still  little  silver  and  more  copper.  The  old 


196  THE  WEST  COAST 

open  mines  are  100-30x3  feet  deep.  The  mines  are  very  wet, 
especially  below  400  feet.  A  drainage  canal  begun  by 
Meiggs  in  1877  was  completed  in  1907.  The  new  workings 
include  five  shafts  and  two  tunnels  of  two  miles  each.  The 
shafts  have  openings  at  four  levels,  the  bottom  410  feet. 
Waste  is  used  for  filling,  as  timber  is  dear.  The  smelter 
has  five  blast  furnaces,  each  running  300  tons  daily.  A  con- 
verter is  in  another  building.  A  hydro-electric  plant  com- 
pleted in  1913  cost  $1,000,000.  There  is  a  10  mile  ditch  and 
pipe  line  with  one  750  foot  fall  and  a  second  of  200  feet. 
The  transmission  line,  70  miles,  serves  Morococha  and  Pasco. 
There  is  a  coke  plant  near  the  smelter  and  a  brick  plant 
of  great  value.  The  coal  mines  are  at  Goyllarisquisga  and 
Quishuarcancha,  21  and  II  miles  respectively.  The  coal  is 
not  very  good,  averaging  35  per  cent  carbon,  but  answers 
the  purpose. 

The  Corporation  owns  12  mines  at  Morococha  and  rents 
others.  The  deepest  shaft  is  750  feet.  Several  drainage 
tunnels  are  required.  The  production,  12,000  tons  a  month, 
was  expected  to  be  increased  to  16,000.  The  ore  of  the  sev- 
eral mines  runs  5,  14,  15,  and  in  one  mine  20  per  cent  copper 
continuously,  the  14  per  cent  with  14-70  ounces  of  silver 
per  ton.  The  ore  averages  7  per  cent  copper  and  10  ounces 
silver.  The  mines  have  produced  20,000,000  pounds  of  cop- 
per a  year,  one  third  of  the  de  Pasco  Company's  output. 
Morococha  is  ten  miles  from  Ticlio,  the  highest  point  on  the 
main  line  of  the  Central  Railway ;  the  ore  is  sent  to  a  smelter 
at  Casapalca,  altitude  13,600  feet,  ten  miles  farther  down. 

The  property  at  Casapalca  also  is  controlled  by  the  Cerro 
de  Pasco  Company.  In  one  mine  there,  a  5000  foot  adit 
cuts  the  vein  2500  feet  below  the  outcrop;  other  adits  are 
higher.  The  ore  is  sent  to  the  smelter  by  an  aerial  tram. 
The  output  is  2500  tons  a  month,  two  per  cent  copper,  and 
40  ounces  silver.  The  Casapalca  smelter  has  three  blast 
furnaces  and  four  barrel  type  converters.  The  flue  dust  is 
briquetted  and  returned.  It  does  custom  work  for  inde- 


PERU  197 

pendent  miners,  and  in  1916  treated  175,000  dry  tons,  pro- 
ducing nearly  20,000,000  pounds  of  fine  copper,  3,000,000 
ounces  of  silver,  and  3587  of  gold;  the  capacity  is  now  in- 
creased 50  per  cent.  A  new  smelter  has  been  erected  at 
Yauli  by  the  Company.  The  Cerro  de  Pasco  property  is 
said  to  be  the  most  costly  ever  developed;  the  ores  are  re- 
fractory. With  the  cost  production  eight  cents  a  pound 
on  an  output  of  over  70,000,000  tons  a  year,  $4.20  a  share 
is  earned  on  14  cent  copper,  double  on  20  cent  copper.  The 
Corporation's  income  in  1916  was  $3,676,000,  about  12  per 
cent  on  the  investment;  about  8  per  cent  was  paid  in  divi- 
dends, not  an  undue  amount  on  what  was  considered  by 
many  a  very  large  risk. 

Another  great  copper  property,  also  owned  by  Ameri- 
cans, is  at  Yauricocha,  about  50  miles  south  of  Yauli,  and 
west  of  the  Oroya-Huancayo  Railway.  Four  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  tons  averaging  16  per  cent  copper  and  2,^/2. 
ounces  of  silver  per  ton,  five  per  cent  of  the  probable  ore 
in  sight,  are  now  ready  for  stoping.  The  smelter  and  blast 
furnace  have  an  output  of  15-18  tons  of  blister  copper  daily. 
Native  labor  of  fair  quality  may  be  obtained  at  one  fifth  of 
the  cost  in  the  United  States,  while  the  ore  is  said  to  be 
six  times  as  rich  as  most  of  that  in  the  West.  Considerable 
water  power  is  available.  An  automobile  road  has  been 
constructed  from  the  station  Pachacayo  60  miles  to  the  mine. 

There  are  other  rich  copper  deposits  in  Peru,  in  Huan- 
cavelica,  Cuzco,  Arequipa,  lea,  Apurimac,  Junin,  Ancash, 
Cajamarca;  but  as  yet  none  of  them  is  in  full  production. 
Ferrobamba  in  the  Department  of  Cuzco,  45  miles  west  of 
the  city,  at  an  altitude  of  13,000  feet,  is  one  of  the  largest 
properties,  with  207  claims  over  225  acres.  The  concession 
includes  water  rights ;  120,000  horse  power  is  available.  The 
ore  can  be  worked  by  steam  shovels.  One  field  is  estimated 
to  contain  12,000,000  tons  of  ore,  6  per  cent  copper,  3  ounces 
silver  and  9  grams  gold.  Its  inaccessibility  has  so  far  pre- 
vented extensive  operations.  The  Anaconda  Copper  Com- 


198  THE  WEST  COAST 

pany  owns  a  copper  property  in  the  Department  of  Are- 
quipa.  Copper  matte  is  exported  from  Queruvilca,  Otuzco, 
Santiago  de  Chuco,  and  Cajabamba. 

Coal,  contrary  to  earlier  supposition,  is  now  known  to 
be  widespread  in  Peru.  The  astonishing  figures  of  6^4 
billion  tons  have  recently  been  given  as  the  estimated  sup- 
ply, over  4  billion  of  these  in  Tumbes,  a  quantity  hitherto 
unsuspected,  perhaps  unverified.  However,  coal  deposits 
are  certainly  scattered  along  the  great  Andes  Range  and  in 
the  foothills,  mainly  in  the  central  and  northern  sections. 
Within  100  miles  of  the  coast  are  millions  of  tons  of  anthra- 
cite coal  near  Cupisnique  and  Huayday ;  millions  more  back 
of  Chimbote  and  along  the  Huailas  Valley,  anthracite,  semi- 
anthracite,  and  bituminous  with  many  veins  4^-13  feet 
thick.  Higher  in  the  plateau  region  are  deposits  of  soft 
coal  near  Oyon,  Cerro  de  Pasco,  and  at  Jatunhuasi.  The 
de  Pasco  coal,  35  per  cent  carbon,  must  be  washed  before 
coking  in  the  smelter.  Forty  per  cent  of  the  material  is 
rejected.  The  best  coal  is  used  on  the  Railway.  It  costs 
$2.92  at  the  mine.  The  Company  has  no  more  than  is 
needed  for  their  smelters  and  railway.  Better  coal  is  found 
at  Jatunhuasi  30  miles  from  Pachacayo,  on  the  road  to  the 
copper  mines  at  Yauricocha,  the  same  company  owning 
both.  This  coal,  45  per  cent  carbon,  makes  better  coke 
which  now  sells  at  $25  a  ton  at  Pachacayo,  previously  at 
$40.  This  deposit,  estimated  at  40,000,000  tons,  is  said  to 
be  the  largest  known  in  Peru  of  high  grade  coking  coal,  and 
the  only  one  capable  of  large  scale  mining  without  pumping. 

At  Paracas  in  the  Department  of  lea  are  veins  near  the 
sea.  Capital  for  working  the  coal  mines  has  not  hitherto 
been  available ;  and  land  transport  a  few  miles  by  llamas  has 
been  more  expensive  than  carriage  by  sea  a  few  thou- 
sand. The  need  is  imperative ;  and  foreign  capitalists  should 
and  no  doubt  soon  will  aid  in  the  development  of  these  rich 
resources.  The  annual  production  is  now  estimated  as 
400,000  tons. 


PERU  199 

Gold  and  silver  are  always  interesting,  and  there  is  still 
plenty  in  Peru.  In  1916  about  $1,200,000  worth  of  gold  was 
mined,  though  accurate  statistics  are  impossible,  on  acount 
of  the  difficulty  of  estimating  the  quantity  got  out  by  the 
Indians.  A  Peruvian  engineer  estimates  the  product  from 
the  Inambari  River  through  their  primitive  methods  as 
$100,000  yearly.  They  build  a  floor  in  the  river,  and  the 
next  season  wash  out  the  gold  sand  in  the  crevices.  There 
are  auriferous  deposits  in  Puno  and  Cuzco;  both  veins  and 
placers  at  Sandia  and  Carabaya,  and  at  Quispicanchis  and 
Paucartambo.  Gold  coinage  in  1918  amounted  to  nearly 
$3,000,000.  The  Aporama  Goldfields  property  near  the 
Hauri  Hauri  River  at  Sandia,  Puno,  has  placer  deposits 
covering  1277  acres.  It  was  just  reaching  production  stage 
when  the  War  opened  and  interfered.  The  New  Chuqui- 
tambo  Company  has  142  acres  in  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  Prov- 
ince. The  Inca  Mining  Company,  American,  has  the  Santo 
Domingo  Mines  on  the  Inambari  River,  now  in  the  Madre 
de  Dios  Department.  From  Tirapata  on  the  Juliaca-Cuzco 
Railway,  there  is  a  wagon  road  for  some  miles,  then  a 
mule  trail  over  the  Aricoma  Pass,  16,500  feet,  and  down  to 
an  altitude  of  7000  feet.  Even  with  the  difficulties  attending 
the  transportation  of  machinery  and  supplies  $8,000,000  have 
been  produced  without  exhausting  the  deposit.  The  Co- 
chasayhuas  mine  in  Cotabambas  yields  $20,000  a  month. 
Seventy  per  cent  of  the  gold  production  is  said  to  come  from 
Puno. 

Silver.  Of  silver  mines  the  most  important  is  reported 
to  be  that  of  the  Anglo-French  Company  near  the  port  of 
Huarmey.  Dividends  have  averaged  from  20  to  25  per 
cent  per  annum.  Possibly  rivalling  this,  are  mines  farther 
south  at  an  altitude  up  to  16,500  feet,  the  reduction  works 
at  15,200  feet  in  the  Cerro  Quespesisa,  120  miles  back  of 
Pisco.  Less  favorably  located,  but  one  of  the  most  produc- 
tive districts  in  Peru,  in  the  last  50  years  it  has  yielded 
6,000,000  ounces  of  silver  with  crude  processes  and  a  loss 


200  THE  WEST  COAST 

of  over  25  per  cent.  The  fuel  used  is  taquia  (llama  dung)  of 
which  1500  tons  a  year  are  burned.  The  temperature  in  the 
middle  of  the  day  is  45°.  At  that  altitude  there  is  no  great 
difference  in  the  seasons  in  the  torrid  zone.  Supplies  are 
brought  from  Pisco,  a  four  and  a  half  days'  journey. 

The  Morococha  mines  produced  in  1916  (estimated) 
1,500,000  ounces.  The  selected  ore  sent  from  Colquipocro 
to  a  Liverpool  smelter  averaged  for  some  years  $200  a  ton, 
while  the  thousands  of  tons  on  the  dump  run  $80  a  ton. 
Silver  is  usually  found  with  either  copper  or  lead,  in  Peru 
oftener  with  the  latter,  while  gold  is  in  veins  of  ferruginous 
quartz,  generally  with  other  metals  as  silver  and  copper, 
as  well  as  in  sand,  alluvial  deposits,  and  in  nuggets.  Other 
silver  mines  operated  are  in  Cajamarca,  Ancash,  at  Yauli 
near  Oroya,  at  Cailloma  in  Arequipa  100  miles  north  of 
Sumbay,  and  elsewhere. 

Vanadium  is  found  near  Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  property  of 
Americans.  From  70  to  80  per  cent  of  the  world's  supply 
is  believed  to  be  in  Peru,  the  second  largest  stock  in  Colo- 
rado. It  is  of  great  value  for  certain  purposes  in  steel  con- 
struction. The  Peruvian  ore,  roasted  before  shipping,  con- 
tains 25  per  cent  of  vanadium.  Three  thousand  five  hundred 
tons  were  exported  in  1918. 

Quicksilver.  In  the  old  mines  of  Huancavelica  there  is 
resumption  of  work  through  the  activity  of  Senor  Fernan- 
dini,  a  prominent  Peruvian  mine  owner  who  has  a  smelter 
near  that  of  Cerro  de  Pasco.  He  has  been  clearing  out  old 
tunnels,  and  driving  new  ones  across,  to  cut  the  ores  700 
feet  below  the  old  surface  workings.  A  hydro-electric  plant 
is  on  trial  for  the  furnaces.  The  mines  are  high  on  the 
mountain  above  the  town  Huancavelica.  The  ore  is  a  bright 
red  cinnabar,  mercury  sulphide,  impregnating  clean  sand- 
stone uniformly,  or  along  planes  or  fractures. 

Other  minerals  exported  are  tungsten,  in  1917  1500  tons 
with  a  60  per  cent  basis;  a  deposit  at  Yauli  gives  14  per 
cent  zinc  with  silver;  a  large  borax  lake  near  the  city  of 


PERU  201 

Arequipa  is  likely  soon  to  be  developed ;  salt,  a  government 
monopoly,  is  found  in  many  places  but  mainly  worked  in 
the  salinas  of  Huacho  near  Lima.  Bismuth,  molybdenum,  and 
antimony  are  found. 

Petroleum  is  a  very  important  product  of  Peru,  the  total 
area  of  oil  territory  being  5000  square  miles,  not  all  proved 
but  with  possibilities.  The  chief  field  is  in  Tumbes  and 
Piura  in  the  north,  the  Titicaca  so  far  having  made  slight 
production.  The  latter  field  is  300  miles  from  the  sea  and 
eight  from  Lake  Titicaca,  near  the  Bolivian  frontier  and 
extending  toward  Cuzco.  Deposits  have  been  found  in  sev- 
eral provinces  but  the  chief  work  was  not  far  from  the 
Juliaca  station  where  10  wells  were  sunk,  in  1912  produc- 
ing an  average  of  50  barrels  a  day,  the  oil  with  the  paraffin 
base.  At  last  accounts  the  work  had  been  discontinued. 
In  1915  there  were  524  wells  in  the  country. 

The  field  at  the  north  extends  180  miles  south  from  the 
town  of  Tumbes  to  some  distance  beyond  Paita,  running 
east  to  the  mountains  and  perhaps  including  the  Islands  of 
Lobos.  The  field  is  30  miles  wide,  though  some  believe  it 
may  extend  150  miles.  Here  is  practically  no  rain,  no  vege- 
tation, and  no  water,  except  that  of  the  sea  which  is  used 
for  all  purposes.  The  temperature  is  called  ideal.  The 
wells  range  from  250  to  over  3000  feet  deep.  At  the  north 
there  is  a  slight  plateau  160-500  feet  high,  running  down 
towards  the  south. 

The  Zorritos  field  farthest  north  and  the  oldest  in  Peru 
is  24  miles  south  of  Tumbes,  with  wells  four  miles  along 
the  coast,  drilled  mostly  at  the  water's  edge  and  some  in  the 
ocean.  The  deepest  is  3000  feet  but  most  are  600-2000  feet. 
Some  wells  produce  500-600  barrels  a  day,  but  one  third  of 
those  dug  were  failures. 

The  Lobitos  field  in  Piura,  60  miles  north  of  Paita,  with 
a  proved  area  of  725  square  miles  the  second  largest  in  Peru, 
has  all  its  wells  over  2000  feet  deep.  One  sunk  to  3435  feet 
was  a  failure.  A  well  around  3000  feet  deep  costs  $10  per 


202  THE  WEST  COAST 

foot  average,  against  $1.50  or  $2.00  for  wells  under  1500 
feet.  The  shallower  wells  here  are  short  lived.  In  1915 
a  new  pool  was  opened  12  miles  north. 

The  Negritos  field  is  the  richest,  40  miles  north  of  Paita, 
with  an  area  of  650  square  miles.  The  average  depth  of 
the  wells  is  2500-3000  feet  and  the  most  important  oil  de- 
posits are  below  1500  feet.  Eleven  miles  east  is  an  asphalt 
seepage  called  La  Brea.  The  oil  from  Negritos  is  piped 
16  miles  north  to  Talara,  the  port  where  the  refinery  and 
the  wharves  are  situated.  Besides  the  6-inch  pipe  line  there 
is  a  narrow  gauge  railway.  The  modern  refinery  has  a 
capacity  of  6000  barrels  a  day.  With  pressure  stills  em- 
ployed the  oil  will  give  75  per  cent  benzine.  The  Talara 
port  permits  vessels  of  28-foot  draught  to  approach  the 
wharves.  The  International  Petroleum  Company,  said  to 
be  controlled  by  Standard  Oil  interests,  now  operates  this 
property  and  has  taken  over  the  smaller  property  of  the 
Lagunitos  Oil  Company  II  miles  from  Talara.  The  amount 
of  oil  production  in  Peru  has  in  ten  years  increased  from 
756,226  barrels  of  42  gallons  to  2,550,000  barrels  in  1916, 
two  thirds  of  the  last  amount  coming  from  Negritos  and 
Lagunitos. 

INDUSTRIES 

While  Peru  does  not  support  large  manufacturing  indus- 
tries she  has  more  than  some  other  South  American  coun- 
tries and  ample  means  for  increase.  Scattered  along  the 
coast  are  more  than  50  streams  which,  though  small,  falling 
10,000  feet,  are  capable  of  providing  an  immense  amount 
of  electric  power.  The  use  of  electricity  is  already  wide- 
spread, electric  lights  and  telephones  are  found  in  many 
towns,  in  several,  electric  cars;  the  development  of  this 
source  of  power  is  progressing. 

Of  factories,  sugar  mills  take  the  lead,  50  haciendas  near 
the  coast  having  their  own  mills.  In  some  of  these  75  per 


PERU  203 

cent  of  the  sucrose  is  extracted  with  the  use  of  the  best 
machinery.  Alcohol  and  aguardiente  are  made  from  both  sugar 
cane  and  grapes,  as  well  as  wine  from  the  latter.  There  are 
rice  mills,  and  factories  for  making  soap,  tallow,  lard, 
matches,  chocolate,  paper,  and  other  ordinary  articles;  to- 
bacco, cigar  and  cigarette  factories,  flour  mills,  etc.  Panama 
hats,  though  made  by  hand,  must  not  be  forgotten. 

Of  great  importance  is  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  in 
which  the  Indians  were  so  proficient  in  Inca  days  that  their 
work  is  said  never  to  have  been  surpassed.  Now  there  are 
seven  cotton  factories,  five  of  these  at  Lima,  making  24,- 
000,000  yards  of  cloth  for  the  home  market.  Three  thou- 
sand operatives  are  employed.  Also  there  are  five  woolen 
factories,  at  Lima,  Cuzco,  and  Arequipa.  Although  the 
Indians  are  illiterate  and  lacking  in  initiative  they  have  a 
taste  for  mechanics  as  well  as  for  agriculture  and  pastoral 
pursuits.  They  still  weave  and  spin,  making  excellent  pon- 
chos and  blankets.  Education  will  be  a  developer.  The 
Indian's  patience  and  skill  should  be  utilized,  his  ambition 
roused,  so  that  he  may  desire  to  live  more  comfortably. 
Higher  wages  and  more  varied  wants  for  these  people  will 
produce  more  business  and  prosperity  in  all  lines. 

INVESTMENTS 

Peru  obviously  offers  very  favorable  opportunities  in 
many  lines :  railway  construction  and  varied  works  of  engi- 
neering, irrigation,  sanitation,  development  of  electric 
power;  agriculture,  especially  the  raising  of  sugar  and  cot- 
ton along  the  coast,  and  of  a  variety  of  additional  products 
in  the  montana ;  mining  of  all  kinds,  especially  coal ;  stock 
raising;  all  of  these  in  many  sections  with  a  very  desirable 
climate.  Of  stock,  the  raising  of  sheep  for  the  export  of 
wool  would  doubtless  be  most  profitable.  The  grasses  of 
the  table-land  are  excellent  fodder;  the  climate  is  cold 
enough  to  ensure  heavy  fleece  but  not  so  extreme  as  to  be 


204  THE  WEST  COAST 

injurious  in  snow  storms  or  in  fair  weather.  By  importing 
a  few  rams  an  expert  in  the  business  would  be  able  to  con- 
duct it  with  large  profit. 

The  farmer  may  purchase  land  in  the  montafia  at  $1.00 
an  acre  and  up,  according  to  location,  or  secure  it  on  other 
terms  arranged  for  immigrants.  Rubber  and  timber  lands 
are  leased  under  special  regulations.  Fruit  raising  and 
poultry  might  be  profitable  in  some  places.  There  is  an 
excellent  chance  for  small  factories,  perhaps  for  large  ones. 
In  many  cities  of  the  North  and  West  Coasts  American 
hotels  or  boarding  houses,  if  properly  conducted,  would  have 
great  success. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

BOLIVIA:  AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  ETC. 

One  of  the  two  inland  Republics  of  South  America, 
Bolivia  has  an  enormous  area,  a  section  of  which  is  still 
unexplored  in  detail.  Its  chief  towns  situated  on  the  lofty 
Andean  plateau  or  a  little  over  its  eastern  edge,  it  seems 
wonderful  indeed  that  here  in  the  i6th  century,  prior  to 
the  existence  of  New  York  or  Boston,  were  populous, 
wealthy  cities,  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  coast  and  from 
the  seat  of  the  Viceroy  at  Lima.  In  the  present  day,  such 
a  horseback  ride  across  country  as  was  then  and  till  within 
a  half  century  common,  would  by  most  persons  be  con- 
sidered quite  a  feat,  while  a  similar  descent  to  the  Atlantic 
port  of  Buenos  Aires,  then  not  unusual,  is  an  expedition 
that  would  commend  itself  to  few ;  though  this  crossing  were 
to  the  Paraguay  River  only,  where  a  steamboat  would  be 
available  for  the  remainder  of  the  journey. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  Bolivia,  with  an  area  variously  given  as  515,- 
ooo  to  708,000  square  miles,  is  generally  counted  third  in  size 
of  the  Republics.  Pending  the  settlement  of  the  boundary 
dispute  with  Paraguay  and  more  accurate  surveys,  probably 
at  least  600,000  may  be  conceded,  a  larger  territory  than  the 
entire  Atlantic  slope  of  the  United  States.  Once  possessing 
a  small  coast  line  which  included  the  port  of  Antofagasta, 
Bolivia  was  deprived  of  this  in  1883  at  the  close  of  the 
war  with  Chile. 

Population.  The  number  of  inhabitants,  mainly  an  esti- 
mate, has  been  recently  given  as  nearly  3,000,000.  With 

205 


206  THE  WEST  COAST 

about  four  persons  to  a  square  mile,  it  is  the  most  sparsely 
peopled  of  American  Republics. 

Boundary.  At  the  north  and  east  the  country  borders 
on  Brazil.  Paraguay  is  at  the  southeast,  Argentina  directly 
south,  and  Chile  and  Peru  west. 

HISTORY 

Known  by  the  name  of  Alto  Peru,  the  country  was  ruled 
for  nearly  three  centuries  by  the  Viceroy  at  Lima,  and  by 
a  Royal  Audience  of  four  men  at  Chuquisaca,  now  Sucre,  the 
nominal  capital  of  the  Republic.  La  Paz  is  noted  as  the 
seat  of  the  earliest  effort  (July,  1809)  in  South  America  for 
democratic  government.  Though  abortive,  it  was  the  in- 
spiration of  later  struggles.  The  battle  of  Ayacucho  in 
1824,  which  ended  Spanish  dominion  over  the  continent,  was 
followed  by  the  entrance  into  La  Paz  of  General  Sucre  with 
his  victorious  army,  February  7,  1825.  The  Act  of  Inde- 
pendence is  dated  August  6,  1825.  The  Republic  was  named 
for  Bolivar,  who  was  elected  President,  while  Chuquisaca 
was  made  the  capital  with  the  name  of  Sucre.  General 
Bolivar,  inaugurated  in  November,  resigned  in  January, 
1826,  and  was  succeeded  by  General  Sucre,  the  first  Presi- 
dent who  really  served.  More  or  less  troublous  times  fol- 
lowed until  a  war  with  Chile  broke  out  in  1879  over  the 
export  nitrate  tax.  At  the  conclusion  of  peace  Bolivia  lost 
the  small  coast  section  of  nitrate  land,  Antofagasta,  which 
she  previously  possessed.  Since  that  time  several  revolu- 
tions have  occurred,  one  in  1920,  but  none  affecting  her 
credit,  her  foreign  contracts,  or  the  lives  of  the  people  gen- 
erally. 

GOVERNMENT 

Bolivia  is  in  form  a  centralized  republic  and  has  the  usual 
three  branches.  The  President,  who  with  two  Vice  Presidents 
is  elected  for  four  years,  and  is  ineligible  for  a  consecutive 
term,  exercises  almost  absolute  authority,  although  Congress 
meets  annually  on  the  sixth  of  August.  The  President's  Cabi- 


BOLIVIA 


207 


net  is  composed  of  six  Ministers:  of  Foreign  Relations  and 
Worship,  Interior  and  Justice,  Treasury,  Promotion  (Inter- 
nal Improvements),  Public  Instruction  and  Agriculture, 
and  War  and  Colonization. 

The  Senate  has  16  members,  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
72.  The  administrators  of  the  Departments  and  of  the  63 
Provinces,  the  Prefects  and  the  Sub-prefects  respectively, 
are  appointed  by  the  President.  Municipal  Councils  regu- 
late the  local  affairs  of  the  cities.  Suffrage  is  enjoyed  by 
male  citizens  over  21  (not  domestics)  who  can  read  and 
write,  who  have  a  fixed  income  of  200  bolivians,  and  whose 
names  are  registered.  The  Supreme  Court  alone  of  the 
three  branches  of  government  is  located  at  the  nominal 
capital  Sucre.  The  Judiciary  has  a  Supreme  Court  with 
seven  Judges,  a  Superior  Court  in  each  Department,  and 
Provincial  and  Parochial  Courts. 

The  Republic  comprises  eight  Departments  and  three 
Territories  as  follows: 


ALTI- 

DEPARTMENTS 

AREA, 
in  square 

POPULA- 
TION 

CAPITALS 

POPULA- 
TION 

TUDE, 
in 

miles 

feet 

La  Paz  

7^.000 

7^4.000 

La  Paz  

107,000 

12  OOS 

Qruro  

27,000 

1^7,000 

Oruro  

11.000 

12.178 

Potosi  

57,000 

515,000 

Potosi  

^o.ooo 

I-1.25I 

Cochabarnba  

36,000 

512,600 

Cochabamba.  . 

•*5.OOO 

8,187 

Chuquisaca  

•17,000 

320,000 

Sucre  

30,000 

Q,^28 

Tarija  

31,000 

160,000 

Tarija  

1  1,  600 

6  24.8 

Santa  Cruz  

140,000 

•*27.ooo 

Santa  Cruz.  .  .  . 

25.000 

I.45O 

El  Beni  

05,000 

50,000 

Trinidad  

6,000 

774. 

TERRITORIES 

Colonias     del    Nor- 

oeste            

81,000 

qo.OOO 

Riberalta  

•J  2OO 

Colonias     del    Gran 

Chaco  

60,000 

23,000 

Villa  Montes.  . 

Q7O 

Delegaci6n  Naciona 

en  el  Oriente  

Puerto  Suarez  . 

208  THE  WEST  COAST 

POPULATION 

The  population  of  Bolivia,  about  2,8oo,ooo,  as  in  Peru 
is  in  three  classes:  the  whites,  numbering  possibly  500,000, 
Indians  and  mestizos  most  of  the  rest,  the  Indians  largely 
in  the  majority,  though  there  are  more  than  half  a  million 
mestizos.  A  few  thousand  are  negroes.  Since  the  coming 
of  the  Spaniards  centuries  ago,  there  has  been  no  real  immi- 
gration, the  mass  of  the  people  thus  continuing  Indian.  The 
whites,  many  of  whom  have  some  admixture  of  Indian 
blood,  are  of  course  the  ruling  class.  An  aristocratic  society 
exists,  the  members  of  which  follow  French  fashions  and 
customs  and  in  considerable  number  have  visited  Europe. 
A  few  persons  have  inherited  or  acquired  by  mining  or 
otherwise  very  large  fortunes.  Some  persons  of  obviously 
mixed  race  or  mainly  of  Indian  blood  become  educated,  and 
acquiring  wealth  take  part  in  politics,  hold  office,  and  obtain 
social  position;  more  such  than  in  Peru.  There  is  a  really 
cultured  society  in  all  towns  of  moderate  size. 

The  plateau  Indians  are  chiefly  Aymaras  or  Quichuas, 
the  former  living  around  Lake  Titicaca  and  throughout  the 
northern  part  of  the  plateau;  while  the  Quichuas,  strange 
to  say,  are  at  the  south,  farther  from  their  kindred  in  Peru. 
The  Aymaras  are  less  prepossessing  than  the  Quichuas, 
more  churlish,  rather  darker,  similar  in  mode  of  life,  though 
a  trifle  more  backward.  They  till  the  soil  to  some  extent, 
act  as  herdsmen,  work  in  mines,  and  perform  heavy  labor 
of  any  kind,  carrying  loads  of  60-80  pounds,  20,  30,  even  50 
miles  a  day.  The  women  are  said  to  be  stronger  than  the 
men ;  both  do  spinning  and  weaving.  The  men  are  inveter- 
ate chewers  of  coca,  and  men  and  women  both  are  much  given 
to  drunkenness.  Of  melancholy  aspect,  they  seem  devoid 
of  ambition.  Generally  submissive,  if  aroused  they  are  re- 
vengeful and  murderous.  Having  received  little  attention 
from  the  Government  they  are  probably  in  poorer  case 
than  when  ruled  by  the  Incas;  they  are  believed  to  be 


BOLIVIA  209 

diminishing  in  numbers.    Plans  have  been  formed  for  im- 
proving their  condition. 

The  mestizos,  also  called  cholos,  feminine  cholas,  are  the 
industrial  class  of  the  nation,  artisans,  shopkeepers  to  some 
extent,  etc.  The  men  dress  in  second  class  European  style ; 
the  cholas,  one  might  say,  half  and  half.  As  a  rule  the 
cholos  treat  the  Indians  more  harshly  than  do  the  real 
whites,  while  to  the  latter  they  are  rather  servile.  Some 
cholos  have  distinguished  themselves  as  writers  and  states- 
men. Two  thirds  of  the  population  are  said  to  live  at  or 
above  12,000  feet.  Several  mining  camps  are  at  15,000  to 
16,000  feet. 

EDUCATION 

Education  is  public,  official,  free,  or  private.  Primary  edu- 
cation is  called  free  and  compulsory.  The  provision,  formerly 
inadequate,  has  recently  been  improved  in  accordance  with 
a  well  planned  programme.  There  are  about  900  primary 
schools  with  53,000  pupils,  including  private  and  kindergarten. 
Fourteen  colegios  nacionales  provide  for  secondary  education 
besides  private  schools  under  government  supervision;  in  La 
Paz  and  Cochabamba,  two  under  Methodist  auspices  have  ac- 
complished excellent  work.  Teachers  are  trained  in  four  nor- 
mal schools,  while  professional  or  higher  education  is  afforded 
by  Universities  in  La  Paz,  Sucre,  and  Cochabamba,  Law 
Schools  at  Oruro,  Potosi,  Santa  Cruz,  and  Tarija,  a  School 
of  Theology  at  Santa  Cruz.  There  are  further  a  Mining 
School,  Institutes  of  Agronomy,  Commerce,  Modern  Lan- 
guages, and  Music;  and  four  Schools  of  Arts  and  Trades, 
the  one  at  Cochabamba  giving  excellent  results  from  instruc- 
tion in  weaving  wool,  and  in  the  use  of  native  dyes.  With  a 
view  to  extending  and  modernizing  the  education  of  women 
coeducation  is  practised  in  most  institutions  and  there  are  two 
liceos  for  girls.  Students  of  especial  ability  are  sometimes 
sent  abroad  for  study,  and  foreign  instructors  are  engaged. 


210  THE  WEST  COAST 

PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

Press.  The  press,  while  important,  is  said  to  have  less 
influence  than  in  the  neighboring  Republics,  and  it  contains 
less  news  of  the  world. 

Religion.  The  religion  of  the  State  is  Roman  Catholic, 
but  freedom  is  now  granted  to  other  forms  of  worship. 
Civil  marriage  alone  is  legal,  but  is  frequently  neglected  by 
the  Indians. 

Telegraphic  Communication.  The  Capital  is  in  tele- 
graphic communication  with  the  rest  of  the  world  and  with 
the  capitals  of  all  the  Departments.  The  country  has  over 
200  offices,  and  4350  miles  of  wire.  A  powerful  wireless 
station  at  Viacha,  on  the  plateau  15  miles  from  La  Paz, 
communicates  with  the  Pacific  Coast  and  with  passing  ships. 
Other  stations  are  at  Villa  Bella,  Cobija,  Trinidad,  Santa 
Cruz,  Ballivian,  D'Orbigny,  Esteros,  Riberalta,  Puerto 
Suarez,  and  Yacuiba.  Telephone  service  exists  in  La  Paz 
and  Oruro. 

Money.  The  unit  o£  Bolivian  money  is  the  boliviano, 
equal  to  about  40  cents  (.389)  of  our  money.  English  and 
Peruvian  gold  pounds  are  legal  tender,  equal  to  12.50 
bolivianos.  The  latter  are  divided  into  100  centavos.  Silver 
coins  are  of  20  and  50  centavos.  Bank  bills  of  one  and  five 
bolivianos  and  of  higher  denominations  are  in  general  use. 

Weights  and  Measures  are  of  the  metric  system,  but  in 
the  interior  the  old  Castilian  system  is  chiefly  employed. 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  topography  of  Bolivia  in  general  is  similar  to  that  of 
Peru  save  for  the  absence  of  a  coast  section.  The  Sierra  or 
plateau  region  and  the  Trans-Andine  continue  those  at  the 
north,  though  the  latter  differs  from  the  Peruvian  in  that  its 
rivers  reach  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  some  by  way  of  the  Amazon, 
others  by  the  Parana  and  La  Plata,  while  the  montana  of  Peru 
is  wholly  in  the  Amazon  Basin. 


BOLIVIA  211 

The  Plateau  Region  of  Bolivia,  90  miles  from  the  Pacific, 
extends  from  northwest  to  southeast  about  460  miles,  with 
an  average  width  of  100  miles  and  an  altitude  of  12,500  feet. 
It  is  bordered  on  the  west  by  the  Cordillera  Occidental,  con- 
taining snowclad  peaks,  several  of  which  are  volcanoes, 
many  dormant  or  extinct,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Cordi- 
llera Oriental,  the  northern  part  of  which  is  the  Real  or 
Royal,  a  name  eminently  deserved.  The  two  ranges  come 
together  at  the  Knot  of  Cuzco  or  Vilcanota.  Northeast  of 
Lake  Titicaca  is  another  confused  mass  or  knot,  the  Nudo 
of  Apolobamba,  where  are  said  to  be  some  of  the  highest 
peaks  of  the  Andes.  The  central  plateau,  once  an  inland 
sea,  and  now  including  Lake  Titicaca,  slopes  slightly  from 
the  north,  where  it  has  a  height  above  13,000  feet.  It  is 
broken  in  places  by  ridges  and  peaks,  one  over  17,000  feet 
high,  and  is  cut  by  a  few  canons.  In  the  West  Cordillera 
a  number  of  peaks  reach  an  elevation  of  19,000,  20,000,  or 
21,000  feet ;  on  the  east  the  Cordillera  Real  contains  several 
above  21,000.  Farther  south  in  the  lower  ranges  are  some 
peaks  of  volcanic  character.  A  transverse  ridge,  the  Ser- 
rania  de  Lipez,  terminates  the  Bolivian  Plateau. 

East  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Cordillera  Oriental  is  a 
mountainous  section  of  which  the  Sierra  de  Cochabamba 
on  the  northeast  and  the  Sierra  de  Misiones  on  the  east 
form  the  limit.  Considerably  farther  east  in  the  region  of 
the  lowlands  is  the  Sierra  de  Chiquitos  between  the  Mamore 
and  Guapore  Rivers,  mere  hills  in  comparison,  with  one 
almost  attaining  4000  feet.  The  highland  or  plateau  section, 
the  only  part  visited  by  ordinary  tourists  or  commercial 
men,  occupies  hardly  two  fifths  of  the  territory,  the  less 
known  lowlands  three  fifths. 

The  Lowlands,  extending  farther  north  than  the  Bolivian 
plateau,  comprise  low  alluvial  plains,  swamps,  and  lands 
often  flooded,  including  great  forests  and  llanos.  The  great 
forests  are  at  the  north  in  the  Amazon  Basin,  the  open  plains 
in  that  of  the  Plata. 


212  THE  WEST  COAST 

Rivers.  The  only  rivers  of  consequence  are  those  which 
flow  towards  the  Atlantic,  with  the  exception  of  the  Des- 
aguadero,  about  200  miles  long,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Titi- 
caca.  This  river  flows  into  Lake  Pampa  Aullagas  or  Poopo, 
which  has  no  outlet  unless  it  be  by  an  underground  stream 
to  the  Pacific,  of  which  there  are  some  indications.  The 
principal  rivers  of  the  Plata  system,  the  Pilcomayo  and  the 
Bermejo,  flow  southeast  into  the  Paraguay  River.  More 
numerous  and  important  are  the  streams  flowing  northeast 
belonging  to  the  Amazon  Basin,  the  chief  of  these,  the 
Beni,  and  the  Mamore,  which  form  the  Madera  River.  They 
have  many  tributaries,  the  Beni  having  the  Madre  de  Dios, 
the  Madidi,  the  Cochabamba,  and  others;  the  Mamore  re- 
ceiving the  great  boundary  river,  the  Guapore  or  Itenez,  and 
many  more. 

CLIMATE 

Bolivia,  still  within  the  tropics,  has  the  same  variety  of 
climate  as  the  countries  previously  described,  the  difference 
in  altitude  causing  the  variation.  The  portion  of  the  table- 
land where  the  altitude  is  12,000  to  13,000  feet,  called  the 
puna  by  the  natives,  has  two  seasons  which  resemble  autumn 
and  winter,  the  summer  is  so  short  and  cool.  The  summer, 
the  season  of  snows,  is  from  October  or  November  to  May; 
the  winter  usually  has  slight  precipitation.  Little  will  grow 
here  except  potatoes,  barley,  and  quinua.  The  higher  land  up 
to  the  snow  line,  perhaps  17,000  feet,  called  the  puna  brava, 
is  still  colder,  supporting  grass  only,  where  herders  alone  are 
found  with  native  flocks  and  rare  mining  settlements.  Higher 
still  is  eternal  snow  with  almost  Arctic  temperature,  — 20°  I 
found  it  at  night  on  a  glacier  on  Mt.  Sorata.  A  professor  once 
told  me  that  at  16,000  feet  he  was  unable  to  keep  warm  at 
night  however  much  clothing  and  blankets  he  used,  but  the 
Indians,  moderately  clad  and  with  bare  feet,  endure  the  cold 
with  apparent  indifference. 


BOLIVIA  213 

The  valleys  as  high  as  12,000  feet,  as  in  the  case  of  La  Paz, 
are  comparatively  comfortable,  being  shielded  from  the  bleak 
winds  of  the  plateau.  From  9500  feet  to  11,000  the  climate 
is  sufficiently  temperate  for  the  raising  of  vegetables  and 
cereals.  In  what  is  called  the  Valley  Zone,  5,000  to  9,000 
feet,  there  is  slight  variation  throughout  the  year,  perpetual 
summer  and  subtropical  vegetation.  Below  are  the  yungas, 
deep  valleys  with  semitropical  climate,  and  further  the  tropical 
lowlands.  Except  for  the  last  section  the  country  as  a  whole 
may  be  called  healthful,  diseases  arising  from  bad  habits,  pov- 
erty, ignorance,  and  unsanitary  conditions,  rather  than  as  a 
necessary  result  of  the  climate.  In  the  lowlands,  however, 
tropical  fevers  and  malaria  are  likely  to  exist,  while  many  per- 
sons are  more  or  less  affected  by  soroche  on  ascending  to  the 
plateau  from  the  sea.  In  La  Paz  the  weather  in  winter  is  cool, 
with  a  temperature  occasionally  below  freezing  and  ranging 
from  40°  to  50°  in  the  house.  Snow  though  not  uncommon 
soon  vanishes  in  the  sun,  and  flowers  like  geraniums  blossom 
all  the  year  in  the  open.  In  summer,  with  much  more  precipi- 
tation, it  usually  rains  in  the  valley,  with  snow  often  on  the 
puna  and  always  on  the  mountains  above. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
BOLIVIA:  CAPITAL,  DEPARTMENTS,  CHIEF  CITIES 

THE  CAPITAL 

La  Paz,  the  de  facto  capital,  population  107,000,  is  by 
far  the  largest  and  most  important  city  commercially.  It 
is  the  highest  capital  and  large  city  in  the  world,  also  one 
of  the  most  picturesque,  both  on  account  of  its  location 
at  the  bottom  of  a  canon,  1000  feet  deep,  and  of  its  street 
scenes  with  the  strangely  garbed  Indians  and  cholos,  and 
the  droves  of  llamas.  The  city  has  better  sanitary  arrange- 
ments than  Quito,  the  narrow  streets  are  remarkably  clean, 
but  some  conveniences  are  lacking.  There  are  electric  lights 
and  cars,  but  a  meagre  water  supply,  and  too  few  opportuni- 
ties for  a  bath.  Good  hotels  are  needed,  the  new  "Paris" 
and  some  older  houses  being  wholly  inadequate  for  present 
necessities.  The  business  of  the  city  is  largely  in  the  hands 
of  foreigners,  i.e.,  the  best  shops,  and  some  of  the  banks 
and  importing  houses.  La  Paz  is  the  chief  centre  of  trade 
of  the  country,  the  Custom  House  here  transacting  by  far 
the  most  business,  but  supplemented  by  several  others  at 
the  east  and  south. 

DEPARTMENTS 

La  Paz  is  the  most  northern  Department  of  the  plateau 
region,  the  third  largest,  the  first  in  population  and  impor- 
tance. It  has  Colonias  north,  El  Beni  and  Cochabamba  east, 
Oruro  south,  and  Chile  and  Peru  west.  La  Paz  has  an 
extremely  varied  landscape  with  a  range  in  altitude  from 
640  to  21,750  feet  at  the  top  of  Mt.  Sorata,  though  some 

214 


BOLIVIA  215 

Bolivians  give  the  altitude  of  this  mountain  as  24,000  feet. 
Besides  the  Cordillera  Real  the  Department  includes  Lake 
Titicaca,  or  as  much  of  it  as  does  not  belong  to  Peru.  The 
lake  is  remarkable  as  being  the  highest  in  the  world  on 
which  steamers  regularly  ply,  12,500  feet  is  an  accepted 
figure;  12,545  is  also  given.  The  lake  has  an  area  of  3200 
square  miles ;  it  is  about  120  miles  long,  34-44  wide,  and  330 
feet  deep,  in  places  nearly  1000.  Other  figures  are  145  miles 
long  and  69  broad,  average  depth  492  feet;  temperature  of 
water  48° ;  annual  rainfall  about  78  inches.  Besides  the 
bleak  table-land  west  of  the  Cordillera  Real,  the  Depart- 
ment comprises  many  beautiful  valleys  east  of  the  moun- 
tains. It  contains,  with  the  capital  La  Paz,  several  impor- 
tant though  not  large  cities:  Corocoro,  a  famed  copper 
centre;  Sorata,  north,  a  delightful  spot,  at  an  altitude  of 
8000  feet,  a  centre  for  the  rubber  industry  and  for  mining; 
Achacachi,  a  big  Indian  town  near  the  Lake;  Copacabana, 
a  very  sacred  religious  shrine,  also  on  the  Lake;  Coroicas, 
east  in  the  Yungas  Valley.  Actual  or  potential  wealth  of 
almost  every  kind  may  be  found  here :  large  flocks  of  llamas, 
alpacas,  and  some  vicunas ;  sheep  and  goats,  herds  of  cattle 
and  horses;  vegetable  products,  coca,  cotton,  coffee,  cereals, 
etc.;  great  riches  in  minerals,  gold,  silver,  tin,  copper,  rock 
crystal,  berenguela,  a  fine  native  marble,  all  these  in  fine 
quality  and  immense  quantity.  The  wonderfully  grand  and 
varied  scenery  of  this  Department  can  be  duplicated  or 
rivalled  in  few  quarters  of  the  globe. 

Oruro,  directly  south  of  La  Paz,  between  Potosi  and 
Chile,  is  the  smallest  of  the  Departments,  entirely  on  the 
plateau,  thus  having  a  much  smaller  range  of  altitude  arid 
of  climate.  Its  wealth  is  in  minerals,  especially  silver  and 
tin,  though  gold,  bismuth,  borax,  and  sulphur  are  found. 
Alpaca,  chinchilla,  and  wool  are  other  products. 

The  capital,  Oruro,  127  miles  south  of  La  Paz,  while 
for  years  the  terminus  of  the  railway  from  Antofagasta, 
became  an  important  commercial  and  industrial  centre;  in 


216  THE  WEST  COAST 

addition  it  is  one  of  the  busiest  mining  districts.  Half  of 
the  mining  men  are  foreigners;  a  large  proportion  of  the 
ordinary  population  is  Indian.  There  is  also  agreeable 
society,  with  people  quite  up  to  date  in  Paris  fashions.  The 
only  other  city  in  the  Department  is  Challapata. 

Cochabamba,  south  of  El  Beni,  east  of  La  Paz  and 
west  of  Santa  Cruz,  is  sometimes  called  the  granary  of  the 
Republic.  It  is  a  particularly  delightful  region,  half  tem- 
perate and  half  semitropical,  with  altitude  ranging  from 
973  to  16,777  fe^t.  It  possesses  immense  plains  with  innu- 
merable herds  of  cattle,  magnificent  fertile  valleys,  rich 
forests,  and  minerals. 

Cochabamba,  the  capital,  is  the  city  next  in  size  to  La 
Paz,  276  miles  distant;  with  an  altitude  of  8387  feet  it 
enjoys  a  delightful  climate,  an  average  temperature  of  66°, 
and  abundant  rain.  It  has  a  good  club,  an  American  Insti- 
tute (a  school  for  boys),  and  the  least  illiteracy.  The  recent 
arrival  of  the  railroad  insures  its  rapid  growth. 

Potosi  is  another  plateau  Department,  both  east  and 
south  of  Oruro,  bordering  also  on  Chuquisaca  and  Tarija, 
and  with  Argentina  south  and  Chile  west.  It  has  for  the 
most  part  a  rather  cold,  disagreeable  climate,  the  altitude 
ranging  from  above  20,000  to  a  little  over  6000  feet. 

The  name  Potosi,  for  centuries  famous  as  almost  a 
synonym  for  silver,  belongs  also  to  the  capital  city,  at  a 
height  of  13,388  feet.  In  1650,  when  New  York  was  a  small 
village,  it  had  160,000  inhabitants.  The  city  has  an  excellent 
mint,  built  in  1562,  also  a  superb  old  cathedral,  a  good 
library,  and  a  museum.  Above  the  town  32  artificial  lakes 
were  constructed  of  which  22  are  still  good.  The  tem- 
perature varies  from  9°  to  59°  ;  it  is  said  that  they  have 
the  four  seasons  in  one  day.  Even  here  potatoes,  barley, 
and  beans  will  grow,  but  living  is  very  dear.  The  town  has 
foundries,  engineering  shops,  and  28  smelters.  The  Depart- 
ment still  contains  enormous  quantities  of  silver  and  tin 
in  almost  every  variety  of  combination,  and  more  towns 


BOLIVIA  «17 

that  are  rich  mining  centres  than  any  other  Department 
except  La  Paz.  Uyuni  is  a  town  of  6000  inhabitants,  Col- 
quechaca  has  a  population  of  8000  miners ;  Tupiza,  soon  to 
be  reached  by  the  railway,  is  a  pretty  city  in  a  pleasant 
valley,  66  miles  from  the  Argentine  border. 

Chuquisaca,  east  of  Potosi  and  south  of  Cochabamba 
and  Santa  Cruz,  is  much  warmer,  the  altitude  ranging  from 
255  to  13,450  feet.  Here  also  are  mines  of  the  usual  varieties 
and  petroleum  too,  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables  of  course, 
and  plains  with  vast  herds  and  flocks. 

Sucre,  the  legal  capital  of  the  Republic,  altitude  9328 
feet,  is  situated  on  an  arm  of  the  Pilcomayo  River.  Social 
distinctions  are  here  more  marked,  and  there  is  an  exclusive 
circle  agreeable  to  those  of  the  right  type.  Sucre,  Cocha- 
bamba, and  La  Paz  are  called  the  most  cultured  cities. 
More  than  300  miles  from  La  Paz  in  a  straight  line  and, 
as  it  is  on  the  east  side  of  the  Cordillera,  much  farther  on 
horseback,  which  until  lately  was  the  only  way  to  journey 
thither,  except  for  some  miles  of  staging,  Sucre  is  now  more 
accessible,  as  will  be  indicated  later. 

Tarija,  south  of  Chuquisaca  and  southwest  of  Potosi,  is 
with  Potosi  the  most  southern  of  the  Departments,  now 
smaller  than  formerly,  since  the  Gran  Chaco  has  been  made 
a  separate  Territory.  Like  Chuquisaca  it  is  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Cordillera,  the  greatest  altitude  being  12,874  feet.  The 
climate  obviously  varies  from  temperate  on  the  west  to  hot 
in  the  lowlands,  the  productions  varying  similarly.  There 
are  possibilities  for  all  varieties  of  grain  and  fruit,  as  well 
as  for  stock  raising;  the  western  part  lies  in  the  silver 
region,  having  gold  and  copper  as  well. 

The  capital,  Tarija,  80  miles  east  of  Tupiza,  is  250  miles 
from  Sucre  and  600  by  rail  from  La  Paz,  but  a  few  days 
must  still  be  spent  in  stage  or  on  horseback.  Prospects 
for  speedy  rail  connection  are  good  when  rapid  develop- 
ment will  follow. 

Santa  Cruz,  north  of  Chuquisaca  and  east  of  Cocha- 


218  THE  WEST  COAST 

bamba  is  the  largest  Department  of  all,  and  the  richest  in 
wild  animals  and  vegetation.  This  Department,  altitude 
377-9754  feet,  does  not  reach  the  great  mountains,  but  far 
to  the  east  it  has  a  little  range  of  its  owrf,  the  highest  sum- 
mits of  which  are  just  below  4000  feet.  Here  are  forests 
and  prairies,  cattle,  tropical  fruit  and  vegetables;  cotton 
grows  profusely,  rice,  manioc,  coffee,  copal,  rubber,  what  you 
will.  Here  too  is  petroleum,  iron,  quicksilver.  The  white 
population  is  said  to  be  of  purer  Spanish  blood  than  in  most 
of  the  Departments,  comparatively  unmixed;  but  as  the  cli- 
mate is  hot  the  people  are  naturally  indolent. 

The  capital,  Santa  Cruz,  altitude  1400  feet,  550  miles  from 
La  Paz  by  way  of  Cochabamba,  and  330  from  Sucre,  was 
founded,  only  think !  in  1 545.  It  is  on  two  of  the  main  routes 
running  from  Bolivia  to  Argentina  and  Paraguay.  With  a 
population  of  20,000,  it  is  quite  a  city,  having  a  variety  of  local 
industries,  and  being  on  a  favored  route  for  the  export  of 
rubber,  sugar,  and  coffee  to  Europe;  but  the  enormous  cost 
and  difficulty  of  transportation  retards  its  progress.  Three 
hundred  and  ninety  miles  east  near  the  Paraguay  River  is 
Puerto  Suarez,  two  hours  or  n  miles  by  cart  road  from 
Corumba,  Brazil,  to  which  point  steamers  come  from  Buenos 
Aires.  A  railway  too  practically  reaches  Corumba  from  Sao 
Paulo. 

El  Beni,  the  last  of  the  Departments,  occupies  the  north- 
east portion  of  Bolivia,  being  divided  from  La  Paz  by  the 
Beni  River.  With  an  area  of  100,000  square  miles  the 
variation  in  altitude  is  slight,  465-2800  feet;  hence  every- 
where a  hot  climate.  It  has  hardly  40,000  inhabitants, 
mostly  Indians.  Nearly  all  the  whites  are  engaged  in  the 
rubber  industry,  though  stock  raising  and  agriculture  are 
slightly  practised  in  the  higher  sections. 

The  capital,  Trinidad,  400  miles  from  La  Paz,  with  a 
population  of  5000,  is  the  least  important  of  the  various 
Department  capitals,  though  containing  many  stores  and 
trading  concerns  for  the  sale  of  imported  products.  Some 


BOLIVIA 

smaller  places  are  of  greater  commercial  consequence 
and  better  known,  on  account  of  their  location. 

Colonias.  Of  the  Territories  of  Bolivia  Colonias  of  the 
Northwest  is  west  of  El  Beni,  and  north  of  La  Paz.  Since 
the  settlement  of  the  boundary  dispute  between  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  the  area  of  the  territory  is  given  as  81,600  miles. 
It  is  similar  in  character  to  El  Beni,  a  great  wilderness, 
full  of  water  courses  and  forests,  a  land  of  wonderful 
vegetation;  population  40,000,  besides  15,000-20,000  wild 
Indians,  not  to  mention  animals,  mostly  wild,  gorgeous 
birds,  snakes  and  insects.  The  swamp  fevers,  it  is  said, 
may  be  avoided  by  healthy  persons  who  use  proper  pre- 
cautions and  live  on  the  highlands  where  forest  clearings 
permit  the  free  course  of  the  wind.  Rain  falls  from  Decem- 
ber to  May,  but  May,  June,  and  July  are  agreeable,  with 
night  temperatures  6o°-7o°.  In  the  warmest  months  the 
range  is  ^6°-go°  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  In  Septem- 
ber cool  south  winds  bring  sudden  changes  often  produc- 
ing colds. 

The  capital,  Riberalta,  920  miles  from  La  Paz,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Madre  de  Dios  and  the  Beni,  stands  on  a 
high  bank  65  feet  above  the  water,  which  the  main  street 
faces,  an  unusually  desirable  location.  Its  population,  per- 
haps 4000,  is  increasing  rapidly  with  the  number  of  trading 
houses  and  rubber  exporters  who  own  small  steamers  for 
river  traffic. 

Villa  Bella,  125  miles  below  Riberalta,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Beni  and  Mamore,  is  on  comparatively  high  land,  facing 
the  Brazilian  town,  Villa  Murtinho  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Mamore.  On  account  of  the  favorable  location  for  export, 
rubber  and  timber  property  in  the  vicinity  is  especially 
valuable.  The  climate  is  better  than  in  many  other  sections 
of  the  tropical  lowlands. 

El  Oriente.  This  Territory,  uncertain  as  to  area  and 
boundary,  is  lowland  southeast  of  Santa  Cruz,  extending 


220  THE  WEST  COAST 

to  the  Paraguay  River,  north  of  the  region  claimed  by 
Paraguay. 

The  capital,  Puerto  Suarez,  is  a  small  place  on  a  bayou 
of  the  Paraguay  River  facing  Corumba. 

Gran  Chaco.  South  of  Santa  Cruz  and  southeast  of 
Tarija,  of  which  it  was  formerly  a  part,  is  the  Territory  of 
Gran  Chaco,  where  the  boundary  with  Paraguay  is  still 
undetermined.  Fifty-seven  thousand  square  miles  is  given 
as  the  area.  Here  are  low  lying  plains,  some  covered  with 
water  in  the  rainy  season  (December  to  March),  one  or  two 
feet  deep;  also  open  forests  with  palms,  willows,  cedar, 
carobs,  and  quebracho;  and  hilly  sections  occupied  by  wild 
Indians. 

Yacuiba,  formerly  the  capital,  which  is  now  transferred 
north  to  Villa  Montes,  is  a  town  200  miles  southeast  of 
Tarija,  and  still  the  most  important  place  in  the  territory. 
In  addition  to  forest  riches,  are  those  of  the  plains,  now 
harboring  wild  cattle,  and  undoubtedly  suitable  for  stock 
raising. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
BOLIVIA:  PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

La  Paz.  Bolivia  unhappily  has  no  seaport,  but  lake  and 
river  ports  are  better  than  none;  of  these  she  has  several. 
Nevertheless  La  Paz  is  the  chief  port  of  entry  with  the 
principal  Custom  House,  the  terminus  of  the  three  railways 
leading  from  the  Pacific. 

RAILWAYS 

Route  from  Mollendo.  In  1903  not  a  single  railway 
reached  La  Paz,  but  not  long  after,  the  road,  which  then 
left  one  on  the  great  plateau,  arrived  at  the  edge  of  the 
alto,  whence  by  electric  power  the  cars  are  brought  down 
the  steep  walls  of  the  canon  to  the  picturesque  city.  This 
route  is  the  conclusion  of  the  road  from  Mollendo,  by  all  means 
the  most  desirable  for  the  traveler  coming  from  the  north. 
The  inconvenience  suffered  by  many  persons  going  from 
the  coast  directly  to  the  high  table-land,  and  the  real 
danger  to  those  with  weak  hearts,  may  be  lessened  or 
entirely  obviated  by  pausing  two  or  three  days  in  the 
pleasant  city  of  Arequipa.  Even  the  compulsory  stay  of  a 
single  night  may  render  the  journey  to  Puno  innocuous  to 
the  person  in  good  condition.  Having  crossed  the  divide, 
altitude  14,688  feet,  one  arrives  at  nightfall  at  Puno,  on  the 
shore  of  Lake  Titicaca,  altitude  12,500  feet.  The  boat  is 
there  taken  for  the  night  journey  of  130  miles  to  Guaqui, 
the  Bolivian  port  at  the  south  end  of  the  lake,  a  14  hour 
sail  which  no  one  should  miss ;  for  in  the  morning  an  inspir- 
ing vision  may  be  had,  hardly  equalled  on  the  globe,  of 

221 


222  THE  WEST  COAST 

the  magnificent  Cordillera  Real,  a  hundred  mile  stretch  of 
rugged  snowclad  peaks  from  Illampu  to  Illimani  with  Huaina 
Potosi  halfway.  A  splendid  view  of  Illampu  is  had  on  the 
left,  during  the  three  hours'  ride,,  56  miles,  over  the  almost 
desert  plateau,  and  after  passing  its  edge  a  match- 
less view  of  the  canon,  the  city,  1000  feet  below,  and  Illimani 
towering  far  above. 

Arica-La  Paz  Railway.  The  second  route  is  from  the 
port  of  Arica,  formerly  in  Peru,  but  now  in  the  possession 
of  Chile,  which  country  in  accordance  with  the  peace  terms 
with  Bolivia  of  1883  constructed  the  Arica-La  Paz  Railway 
as  far  as  the  frontier,  the  most  difficult  portion,  while  Bolivia 
laid  the  rails  for  145  miles  within  her  own  boundaries.  A 
branch  5  miles  long  leads  to  the  important  mining  town  of 
Corocoro.  This  is  by  far  the  shortest  route  from  the  coast, 
only  281  miles,  but  as  we  have  seen,  this  is  a  disadvantage 
to  travelers  rather  than  a  benefit;  nor  is  there  a  gain  in 
time  to  one  coming  from  the  north,  as  the  steamer  arrives 
at  Arica,  a  day  later  than  at  Mollendo.  As  one  may  come 
up  from  Mollendo,  including  the  night  at  Arequipa,  in  48 
hours,  one  thus  arrives  in  La  Paz  a  few  hours  before  one 
who  travels  in  22  hours  from  Arica.  The  journey  from 
Mollendo  is  534  miles.  For  the  more  rapid  climb  from  Arica 
there  are  28  miles  of  rack  railway  with  a  maximum  grade 
of  six  per  cent.  The  equipment  of  the  road  has  been  inade- 
quate for  the  business,  but  more  has  been  ordered;  larger 
port  works  at  Arica  are  needed  and  expected.  The  highest 
point  on  the  railway  is  13,986  feet  near  the  Bolivian  bound- 
ary, nearly  700  feet  lower  than  on  the  road  from  Mollendo ; 
but  being  reached  in  less  than  half  as  many  hours,  and  also 
at  night  when  the  effect  of  the  altitude  is  always  greater, 
even  the  most  robust  are  likely  to  suffer  from  a  headache 
if  not  worse,  as  is  the  case  with  persons  coming  up  from 
Antofagasta.  Going  down  by  either  route  there  is  usually 
no  trouble,  except  for  those  who  have  been  a  long  time 
at  the  higher  altitude. 


BOLIVIA  223 

Bolivia- Antofagasta  Railway.  The  journey  to  La  Paz 
from  Antofagasta,  on  the  Chilian  coast  400  miles  below 
Arica,  occupies  two  days  for  the  718  miles.  This,  the 
earliest  of  Bolivian  railways,  with  Oruro  for  years  as  the 
terminus,  in  1911  was  continued  to  La  Paz,  i.e.,  to  Viacha 
(15  miles  from  La  Paz),  where  it  meets  the  road  from 
Guaqui,  the  two  forming  a  long  link  in  the  Pan  American 
chain.  The  later  road  now  has  its  own  line  into  the  city. 
At  Uyuni,  where  there  is  a  Custom  House  and  a  change  of 
cars,  the  road  turns  off  towards  Chile.  From  Ollague  on  the 
Chilian  border,  a  58-mile  branch  runs  to  the  Collahuasi  copper 
mines,  among  the  richest  in  the  world.  A  Bolivian  extension  is 
now  being  made  along  the  plateau  to  connect  with  the 
Argentine  road  from  La  Quiaca  to  Buenos  Aires.  Already 
Atocha  has  been  reached;  60  miles  remain  to  Tupiza,  and 
66  more  to  La  Quiaca,  the  terminus  of  the  Argentine  rail- 
way to  the  border.  An  automobile  service  is  operated  in 
the  dry  or  winter  season  from  Atocha  to  La  Quiaca,  mak- 
ing the  journey  in  eight  hours.  The  rest  of  the  year  one 
goes  on  muleback.  Thus  by  the  weekly  train  from  La 
Quiaca  to  Buenos  Aires  in  48  hours,  the  entire  journey, 
2000  miles,  may  be  made  from  La  Paz  much  more  quickly 
than  by  way  of  Chile,  in  case  one  does  not  wish  to  go  there. 
This  route  also  serves  when  the  Trans-Andine  is  blocked 
by  the  winter  snow. 

Other  Argentine  connections  are  planned.  A  branch 
railway  is  to  be  built  from  La  Quiaca  or  possibly  from 
Oran  to  Tarija,  about  82  miles;  meanwhile  it  is  expected 
to  construct  an  automobile  road  for  the  service.  A  rail- 
way extension  from  the  Argentine  boundary  farther  east, 
hoped  for  in  the  near  future,  is  from  Embarcacion  to 
Yacuiba,  thence  to  Santa  Cruz,  thus  opening  the  cattle 
region  of  the  Chaco,  of  Chuquisaca,  and  Santa  Cruz  for  the 
export  of  cattle  through  Buenos  Aires. 

Several  Branches.  Farther  north  important  branches  to 
the  interior  are  already  in  operation.  The  first,  opened  in 


224  THE  WEST  COAST 

1912,  was  from  the  station,  Rio  Mulato,  130  miles  south  of 
Oruro,  to  far  famed  Potosi.  This  section,  108  miles  long, 
climbs  to  a  height  of  15,814  feet,  the  second  highest  altitude 
reached  by  rail,  following  the  Morococha  branch  of  the 
Central  Peruvian.  The  cost  was  over  $8,000,000,  the  maxi- 
mum grade  three  per  cent.  The  trip  occupies  eight  hours; 
there  is  weekly  service.  The  Oruro-Cochabamba  Line  was 
completed  in  1917;  its  length  132  miles,  its  cost  above  $10,- 
000,000.  It  crosses  the  Cordillera  at  about  14,000  feet.  This 
road  is  equally  important,  opening  up  a  fine  agricultural 
and  well  populated  district.  Its  fine  scenic  attractions 
should  allure  the  tourist.  Food  is  very  expensive  on  the 
plateau,  but  with  improved  access  to  the  warmer  sections, 
lower  prices  and  greater  variety  of  fruits  and  vegetables 
may  be  expected  above. 

A  branch  on  the  plateau  long  in  operation  is  a  24  mile 
line  from  Uyuni  to  the  Huanchaca  silver  mines,  the  road 
owned  by  the  Mining  Company.  Another  branch  is  now 
under  construction  from  Machacamarca  to  Uncia,  57  miles, 
built  by  Simon  Patino,  the  wealthy  owner  of  extremely  rich 
tin  mines  at  Uncia.  Thirty-eight  miles  are  in  operation. 

New  Lines.  Under  construction  are  two  very  important 
lines:  one  the  Potosi-Sucre  Railway,  105  miles,  with  40 
in  operation;  the  other,  the  La  Paz-Yungas  Line  of  very 
difficult  construction,  passing  over  the  mountain  range  near 
La  Paz  at  an  altitude  of  15,338  feet  and  going  down  into 
the  deep  valley.  One  hundred  and  thirty-seven  miles  have 
been  surveyed.  The  passage  has  been  accomplished,  the 
road  opened  to  Unduavi,  16  miles,  from  which  point  it  will 
be  continued  down  the  valley  to  Coroico,  later  to  Rurena- 
baque,  and  some  time  to  Puerto  Brais  on  the  Beni,  the 
latter  port  being  open  to  navigation  all  the  year.  Already 
a  delightful  road  for  tourist  travel  and  useful  for  bringing 
fruit,  vegetables,  and  other  products  to  the  La  Paz  market, 
has  been  constructed.  With  the  completion  of  the  road 
to  Puerto  Brais,  a  more  speedy  route  for  travel  and  freight 


BOLIVIA 

to  Europe  will  be  attained.  On  account  of  the  scarcity  and 
high  cost  of  coal  this  road  is  operated  by  electricity,  for 
which  the  great  fall  of  small  streams  gives  ample  power. 
On  account  of  transportation  difficulties  and  increased  cost 
the  completion  of  the  Potosi-Sucre  Railway  has  been  de- 
layed, but  when  this  is  realized  the  road  will  probably  be 
continued  northeast  to  Santa  Cruz.  From  this  city  a  road 
to  Puerto  Suarez  on  the  Paraguay,  now  talked  of,  will  come 
later.  Bolivia  has  about  1400  miles  of  railway  in  service. 
A  road  to  Santa  Cruz  from  Cochabamba  instead  of  Sucre 
is  advocated  by  many. 

OTHER  FORMS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 

Roads.  Automobile  roads  are  planned  and  being  con- 
structed to  fill  as  far  as  possible  present  requirements,  but 
in  the  rainy  months,  December  to  May,  traffic  is  generally 
suspended.  From  Cochabamba  to  Sucre  there  is  motor 
service  for  freight  and  passenger  traffic,  a  more  direct  route 
than  that  from  Potosi  for  persons  in  La  Paz.  From  Potosi 
to  Sucre  a  motor  bus  makes  the  journey  in  12  hours. 
Another  motor  car  road  soon  to  be  available  is  from  Riber- 
alta  to  Villa  Church  (65  miles),  opposite  Guajara-Mirim 
in  Brazil,  the  terminus  of  the  Madeira-Mamore  Railway. 
From  Cochabamba  autos  run  to  Totora,  also  from  La  Paz 
to  Achacachi,  and  over  a  spur  of  Illampu  down  to  Sorata. 

Aside  from  railways  land  transportation  is  chiefly  con- 
fined to  burros,  mules,  and  llamas;  in  some  places  there  are 
mule  wagons  or  ox-carts,  mules  generally  carrying  the 
traveler.  The  cart  roads,  constructed  and  maintained  by 
the  Government  or  the  Municipality,  are  mostly  very  poor ; 
yet  such  as  they  are  they  extend  2000  miles.  They  are  often 
if  not  usually  impassable  in  the  wet  season.  Llamas  are 
more  extensively  employed  than  in  any  other  country.  In 
the  plateau  region  with  their  loo  pound  burden  they  wander 
leisurely  along,  cropping  the  coarse  grass,  tended  by  their 


THE  WEST  COAST 

Indian  owners  or  drivers,  who  are  in  no  more  of  a  hurry 
than  they.  Along  difficult  mountain  slopes  are  paths  con- 
structed by  the  Indians,  skirting  precipices  and  climbing 
steep  inclines,  where  llamas,  mules,  and  burros  bear  loads 
of  minerals,  coca,  coffee,  or  other  products  or  imports,  from 
one  section  to  another.  About  5000  mules  and  burros  pass 
over  the  La  Paz-Yungas  road  daily.  Except  in  the  dry 
season,  May  to  October,  travel  either  by  mule  or  by  stage 
may  anywhere  be  difficult  or  impossible  on  account  of 
rivers  becoming  impassable  by  reason  of  freshets  or  roads 
because  of  mud.  The  importance  of  proper  packing  accord- 
ing to  directions  of  goods  which  may  be  shipped  to  the 
interior,  or  indeed  to  any  destination,  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated. 

Lake  Transport.  Aside  from  the  railways  transportation 
in  Bolivia  cannot  be  called  excellent  either  on  land  or  water, 
though  there  is  fair  steamboat  service  on  Lake  Titicaca. 
This  with  Lake  Aullagas  (Poopo)  and  the  Desaguadero 
River  are  the  only  waterways  of  the  table-land  where  navi- 
gation exists.  On  the  larger  lake  the  Railway  Company 
has  steamers  of  1500  tons  or  less,  five  in  all,  connecting 
with  the  trains,  and  some  touching  at  small  ports  on  the 
islands  and  around  the  Lake.  Other  boats  are  used,  among 
them  Indian  balsas,  built  entirely  of  reeds,  sails  and  all. 
In  the  use  of  these  the  Indians  are  very  expert.  The 
Desaguadero  River  is  navigable  to  Lake  Poopo  for  steamers 
of  500  tons.  Poopo  is  navigable  for  boats  of  shallow  draft. 

River  Transport.  Of  great  and  increasing  importance 
are  the  rivers  of  the  eastern  slope,  both  those  of  the  Amazon 
Basin,  and  to  a  less  degree  those  of  the  Paraguay,  which 
river  for  some  distance  is  practically  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Bolivia.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Pilcomayo  and  the 
Bermejo.  Bolivian  statistics  give  the  total  length  of  all 
their  navigable  rivers  as  nearly  12,000  miles,  but  these 
figures  include  sections  not  conceded  as  within  the  bound- 
aries of  the  Republic  as  well  as  rivers  on  the  boundary. 


BOLIVIA  227 

Half  of  the  distance  mentioned,  6000  miles,  is  said  to  be 
navigable  by  steamers  of  4-6  feet  draft. 

In  the  Amazon  Basin  steamboat  navigation  is  possible 
on  the  Acre  from  the  Upper  Purus,  the  Abuna,  Orton, 
Madre  de  Dios,  Beni,  Madidi,  Mamore,  Itenez  or  Guapore 
Rivers,  with  some  of  their  tributaries.  Of  the  above,  the 
Beni  and  the  Mamore  are  the  most  important.  On  the 
latter,  regular  steam  service  has  recently  been  inaugurated 
from  Cuatro  Ojos  in  Santa  Cruz  to  Guajara-Mirim  (a 
distance  of  nearly  1000  miles),  the  terminus  of  the  Madeira- 
Mamore  Railway.  From  the  Department  Cochabamba, 
boats  descend  on  the  rivers  Chapare,  Chimore,  and  labaro 
to  the  Mamore.  The  Guapore,  though  easily  navigable  for 
looo  miles,  flowing  through  an  uninhabited  region,  is  little 
used. 

Although  most  of  the  streams  are  more  or  less  obstructed 
by  rapids,  rocks,  and  masses  of  tree  trunks,  which  last 
might  easily  be  cleared  away,  they  are  nevertheless  useful 
for  navigation.  In  spite  of  difficulties  and  dangers  much 
transport  with  canoes  and  rafts  is  effected  by  the  Indians, 
who  are  expert  boatmen.  On  the  Beni,  rafts  are  used  from 
Puerto  Pando  155  miles  to  Rurenabaque;  from  there  steam- 
boats serve  573  miles  to  Riberalta;  the  Esperanza  Rapids 
below  the  town  making  their  further  passage  impracticable. 
Hence  the  journey  to  Villa  Bella  opposite  Villa  Murtinho 
on  the  Madeira-Mamore  Railway  or  to  Villa  Church,  higher 
up,  opposite  Guajara-Mirim  must  be  made  by  land ;  there- 
fore the  motor  road  is  being  constructed. 

In  high  water  the  Madre  de  Dios  is  navigable  by 
steamers  far  up  its  tributaries,  at  other  times  by  callapos 
which  consist  of  two  or  three  balsas  fastened  side  by  side.  The 
balsa  here  is  a  small  raft  made  of  several  logs.  It  is  usually 
22  to  26  feet  long,  5-6  wide,  carries  750  pounds,  and  is  man- 
aged by  three  boatmen.  A  callapo  or  monteria  may  carry 
3400  pounds  with  a  crew  of  from  3  to  15  highly  skilful  men. 
They  make  9  or  10  miles  daily,  navigating  10-12  hours.  With 


228  THE  WEST  COAST 

the  return  of  normal  conditions  the  development  of  this  region 
will  be  hastened,  and  greater  benefits  will  be  realized  from  the 
opening  of  the  Madeira-Mamore  Railway  which  occurred  in 
1912. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
BOLIVIA:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

MINING 

The  mining  industry,  at  present  the  most  important 
in  Bolivia,  is  likely  to  continue  the  leader  for  an  indefinite 
period,  although  with  easy  communication  and  large  popu- 
lation in  the  lower  districts  it  may  ultimately  have  a  rival 
in  forestal  and  agricultural  products,  or  in  cattle,  certain 
to  be  at  least  a  very  valuable  adjunct.  The  mineral  riches 
of  Bolivia  may  equal  if  they  do  not  surpass  those  of  Peru, 
though  except  for  silver  and  tin  they  are  probably  less 
known.  They  include  almost  every  variety  of  the  precious 
metals,  with  others  not  so  classed.  To  mention  a  few  of 
these,  there  are  gold,  silver,  tin,  copper,  bismuth,  lead, 
antimony,  tungsten,  platinum,  zinc,  petroleum,  with  fine 
marbles,  alabaster,  malachite,  opals,  emeralds,  jasper,  borax, 
salt,  etc.  There  are  thousands  of  known  lodes,  but  com- 
paratively few  are  worked.  The  statement  of  the  scientist, 
Raimondi,  that  the  plateau  of  Bolivia  is  a  table  of  silver 
supported  on  columns  of  gold  is  declared  by  Walle  to  be 
no  exaggeration.  A  few  of  the  mining  belts  where  some 
work  has  been  carried  on  will  be  mentioned. 

Gold.  At  the  present  time  little  is  done  in  the  way  of 
gold  mining,  tin  and  copper  being  more  fashionable.  An- 
other reason  for  inactivity  in  this  line  is  that  the  Bolivians 
possess  the  majority  of  the  more  favorably  situated  hold- 
ings, which  they  refuse  to  part  with  except  at  prohibitive 
prices  or  possibly  at  all,  hoping  some  day  themselves  to 
be  able  to  operate  them.  It  is  true  that  in  the  early  colonial 

229 


230  THE  WEST  COAST 

days  enormous  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  both  were  pro- 
duced and  exported,  although  obtained  by  crude  mining 
methods.  It  is  thought  that  with  modern  machinery  excel- 
lent if  not  better  results  may  yet  be  obtained.  In  the  210 
years  previous  to  1750  more  than  12  billion  dollars  worth 
of  gold  was  produced  in  the  country.  There  has  been  a 
falling  off  since  then,  but  one  family  in  the  last  century 
obtained  over  $3,000,000  from  their  property.  Between  1868 
and  1900  over  $120,000,000  is  believed  to  have  been  pro- 
duced. In  many  sections  gold  is  known  to  exist  in  abun- 
dance and  with  further  exploration  it  will  doubtless  be  dis- 
covered in  others.  It  is  found  in  alluvial  deposits,  also  in 
veins  or  lodes  of  quartz,  from  which  the  deposits  are  the 
washings.  Veins  of  antimony  which  are  common  in  Bolivia 
contain  gold  in  chemical  or  mechanical  mixture. 

There  are  three  regions  where  gold  is  found,  all  of  con- 
siderable extent:  the  first  and  best  known  crosses  the 
provinces  of  the  Department  of  La  Paz,  chiefly  on  the  east 
slopes  of  the  Cordillera  Real,  continues  through  that  of 
Cochabamba  and  runs  out  in  Santa  Cruz  towards  the  Rio 
Paraguay.  In  La  Paz  are  the  well  known  deposits  of  the 
Tipuani  River,  of  Chuquiaguillo,  and  many  others.  The 
second  region  begins  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  country, 
and  passing  south  of  Tupiza  turns  north  through  Potosi 
towards  Santa  Cruz.  The  third  is  in  the  northwest  part 
of  the  Republic,  joining  the  similar  section  in  Peru.  Al- 
though said  to  be  the  richest  of  all,  it  is  practically  unex- 
ploited  and  unexplored. 

While  the  opinion  is  held  that  the  lack  of  means  of 
communication  is  all  that  prevents  a  large  production  of 
gold  in  Bolivia,  I  believe  that  to  Americans  this  is  a  smaller 
drawback  than  the  distance  of  the  whole  country  from  the 
United  States;  this  objection  will  have  less  weight  in  the 
future.  Certainly  the  hardships  of  those  regions  and  the 
difficulty  in  reaching  many  of  them  is  slight  indeed  in  com- 
parison with  the  trials  experienced  by  early  Alaskan  miners. 


BOLIVIA  231 

The  Tipuani,  for  instance,  is  within  a  day's  horseback  ride 
from  the  pretty  town  of  Sorata,  population  8000.  Chuquia- 
guillo,  now  owned  by  an  American  company,  is  within 
easy  walking  distance  of  La  Paz.  Others  are  more  remote, 
most  of  them  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cordillera  Real, 
to  be  reached  over  passes  of  15,000  feet  or  more,  yet  within 
a  few  days'  ride  of  civilization.  The  single  region  of  the 
Tipuani  is  120  miles  long. 

Besides  the  opportunities  for  placer  mining  there  are 
strata  formed  of  sand,  clay,  and  stones,  from  50  to  330  feet 
deep.  Sometimes  in  these  there  are  veins  with  gold  in  thin 
flakes  98  per  cent  pure.  Some  workings  are  open,  others 
in  shafts  and  galleries  like  an  ordinary  mine.  However, 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  taking  machinery  over  the  poor 
trails,  and  also  in  obtaining  labor.  In  May,  1904,  a  nugget 
was  found  at  Chuquiaguillo  containing  47  ounces  of  pure 
gold,  nearly  $1000  worth.  One  hundred  miners  are  em- 
ployed here  at  50  cents  to  $1.50  a  day.  In  the  Province  of 
Velasco,  Department  of  Santa  Cruz,  is  a  region  considered 
by  Walle  more  accessible  than  others,  to  which  one  would 
come  from  the  Atlantic  to  Corumba  on  the  Paraguay  River 
or  perhaps  by  rail  from  Sao  Paulo,  and  enter  Bolivia  across 
the  plains.  It  is  thought  that  Bolivia  may  become  one  o£ 
the  leading  gold  producers  of  the  world. 

Silver.  The  silver  mines  are  better  known  and  are  now 
worked  on  a  larger  scale  than  the  gold,  although  10,000 
lodes  are  practically  abandoned  or  operated  slightly.  The 
suspension  was  not  because  of  a  scarcity  of  silver  but  for 
lack  of  capital,  means  of  transport,  and  suitable  machinery ; 
also  its  lower  price.  A  few  of  the  largest  mines  have  con- 
tinued to  be  regularly  worked.  With  the  recently  higher 
price  of  silver,  greater  activity  has  prevailed  than  a  few 
years  earlier.  The  richest  of  the  ores  contain  from  10  to 
50  per  cent  of  silver  and  even  80;  more  has  from  I  to  10 
per  cent. 

The  Department  of  Potosi  is  world  renowned  for  its 


232  THE  WEST  COAST 

silver.  In  the  first  40  years  of  colonial  production  more 
than  $70,000,000  was  taken  from  the  Cerro  Potosi,  a  sugar 
loaf  16,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  which  5000  mines  have 
been  opened.  Up  to  the  present  time  a  billion  dollars,  one 
writer  says  four  billion,  have  been  realized  from  the  silver 
of  Bolivia.  In  neighboring  Provinces  of  the  same  Depart- 
ment, Potosi,  are  many  other  mines,  most  of  which  now 
produce  tin  as  well.  The  ores  of  Potosi  which  originally 
contained  60  per  cent  or  more  of  silver  are  now  poorer 
with  more  iron  pyrites.  The  present  queen  of  South  Ameri- 
can silver  mines,  the  Huanchaca-Pulacayo,  east  of  Uyuni, 
consists  of  a  dozen  groups  over  8500  acres,  a  bed  of  fabulous 
richness.  In  the  28  years  before  1901  it  produced  4250  tons 
of  silver.  The  majority  of  the  stock  is  held  in  France. 
Some  years  ago  the  Pulacayo  mines  were  flooded  with  hot 
water,  but  they  have  now  been  drained  and  are  again 
operated.  On  the  property  is  a  town  of  10,000  people, 
hundreds  of  whom  are  employed  in  the  works,  including 
women  who  first  try  out  the  ore.  In  1918  $2,622,000  worth 
of  silver  was  produced. 

Oruro  is  next  to  Potosi  in  production  of  silver,  and  in 
tin  it  stands  first.  The  richest  silver  ores,  as  at  Huanchaca, 
are  so  exported,  the  poorer  are  treated  on  the  spot.  Other 
rich  mines  are  well  known. 

Tin  mining  is  a  more  recent  industry,  dating  from  1895. 
Already  it  has  become  the  leading  export  of  the  country, 
which  now  provides  more  than  one-third  of  the  world's 
supply.  It  was  well  known  to  the  Spanish  colonists  as 
much  of  it  was  mingled  with  the  silver,  but  they  rejected 
it  as  rubbish,  using  it  to  fill  in  depressions.  Large  profits 
have  been  recovered  from  these  fillings  and  from  the  dumps. 
While  tin  is  produced  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world, 
the  Bolivian  lodes  are  of  unusual  extent  and  richness.  Their 
production  is  now  exceeded  only  by  that  of  the  Straits 
Settlements.  Since  the  development  of  the  tin  plate  industry 
and  its  use  in  other  ways  the  demand  for  tin  and  the  price 


BOLIVIA  233 

have  enormously  increased ;  from  $350  a  ton  in  1898  to  $900 
before  the  war.  In  1912  tin  was  produced,  barilla,  60  per 
cent  pure,  37,700  tons,  worth  $18,000,000;  in  1918  the  value 
of  tin  exported  was  $45,364,000. 

All  along  the  eastern  part  of  the  plateau  from  Lake 
Titicaca  to  the  southern  boundary,  tin  is  found  in  thick 
unbroken  lodes.  The  three  principal  districts  are  La  Paz, 
Oruro,  Potosi.  In  La  Paz  the  best  known  mines  are  on  the 
slopes  of  the  splendid  mountain,  Huaina  Potosi  in  the 
Cordillera  Real,  though  many  other  mines  are  worked. 
Those  in  the  Department  of  Oruro  are  more  important, 
producing  one-third  of  the  output.  The  lodes  vary  in  thick- 
ness from  a  few  inches  to  10,  15,  or  20  feet.  Rich  pockets 
are  found  30-60  feet  in  diameter,  and  veins  with  stannic 
oxide  fragments,  running  from  50  to  100  per  cent.  Cassi- 
terite,  tin  stone,  or  tin  with  stannic  oxide,  is  frequent  with 
55-60  per  cent  tin ;  this  is  sent  to  Europe  as  extracted.  The 
percentage  of  tin  in  a  lode  is  very  variable,  often  6-8  per 
cent,  sometimes  15.  Veins  of  tin  on  the  Cerro  Potosi  pene- 
trate the  hill  parallel  to  veins  of  silver;  some  are  united; 
in  others  tin,  silver,  and  copper  alternate  or  are  in  union. 
The  tin  is  generally  in  the  upper  part  nearer  the  surface. 
Sulphides  are  found  at  Oruro,  but  oxides  are  more  frequent. 
All  are  at  an  altitude  of  about  10,000-17,000  feet  The  large 
Socavon  Company  employs  1000  hands,  has  a  concentrat- 
ing plant,  and  puts  out  six  tons  of  silver  and  250  tons  of 
tin  yearly.  Many  other  mines  export  barilla,  some  of  it 
with  70  per  cent  of  tin.  A  Bolivian,  Simon  J.  Patifio,  from 
being  an  ordinary  laborer  has  risen  to  be  the  Tin  King, 
both  banker  and  mine  owner,  working  his  mines  by  modern 
methods  and  electric  machinery.  His  mines  at  Uncia  are 
among  the  richest  in  the  world,  producing  about  30  per 
cent  of  the  Bolivian  total.  The  Llallagua  mines,  the  richest 
of  ^  all,  have  still  greater  production. 

On  Huaina  Potosi  are  placers  containing  with  tin,  gold 
in  flakes,  bismuth,  and  oxide  of  iron;  more  in  other  loca- 


234  THE  WEST  COAST 

tions.  The  Company  owning  the  Chlorolque  Mountain  and 
other  properties,  with  tin  as  the  principal  product,  mines 
also  silver,  bismuth,  copper,  and  wolfram;  it  paid  a  30  per 
cent  dividend  in  1917.  Capital  only  is  needed  to  exploit  on 
a  much  larger  scale  these  rich  and  available  deposits.  Three 
hundred  to  four  hundred  dollars  a  ton  hardly  paid  the  cost 
of  production,  but  with  prices  three  times  as  much  it  is  a 
highly  profitable  business.  The  Guggenheims  have  recently 
purchased  three  tin  mines  located  at  Caracoles  on  the 
Quimsa  Cruz  Range,  south  of  Illimani,  to  which  they  have 
built  an  automobile  road  150  miles  from  Eucalyptus,  a 
station  on  the  main  line  between  La  Paz  and  Oruro.  The 
mines  are  at  an  altitude  of  16,000  to  18,000  feet,  the  quarters 
at  15,000  to  16,000.  The  tin  runs  to  10-15  per  cent.  It  is 
thought  that  the  property  will  rival  the  Uncia.  The  Interna- 
tional Mining  Company  has  a  tin  property  in  the  Yungas 
Province  52  miles  from  La  Paz  at  a  height  of  8000  feet,  a 
rather  more  comfortable  altitude. 

Copper.  Of  late  the  copper  deposits  in  Peru  and  Chile 
have  received  more  attention  than  those  of  Bolivia,  but 
this  country  also  has  extensive  formations  from  Lipez  at 
the  south  where  white  copper  is  found,  along  the  East 
Cordillera,  past  Potosi  and  Oruro  to  Corocoro  in  the  West, 
ending  in  the  Nudo  of  Apolobamba.  Veins  occur  in  all  the 
buttresses  of  the  Andes. 

Copper  is  found  chiefly  in  its  native  state,  the  deposits 
of  Corocoro  being  especially  famous.  The  copper  here 
occurs  in  powder,  plates,  or  nodules,  in  beds  of  reddish 
sandstone.  One  veta,  or  mineralized  bed,  is  1000  yards  deep, 
extending  several  miles ;  another,  a  branch  formation  above 
this  surrounds  it  on  the  southwest  and  east,  occupying  a 
great  part  of  the  Desaguadero  Valley.  Both  formations  are 
arseniates.  One  branch  2000  yards  thick  extends  6  miles; 
in  another  direction  a  branch  runs  35  miles  from  Corocoro 
to  Chacarilla,  then  branching  south  and  east.  Copper 
generally  occurs  in  small  irregular  grains  with  from  70  to 


BOLIVIA  £35 

92  per  cent  copper.  The  native  copper,  the  great  wealth  of 
the  mines,  here  ranges  from  microscopic  grains  to  plates 
and  arborescent  forms  called  charquis.  At  La  Charcarilla 
large  plates  are  found  3^  inches  thick.  Ores  with  15-20 
per  cent  copper  are  usually  neglected.  As  there  are  no  good 
kilns,  barilla  is  exported  80  per  cent  pure,  a  quintal,  220 
pounds,  costing  $3-4  for  production.  Except  from  Coro- 
coro  the  present  output  is  insignificant.  For  a  time  these 
mines  were  abandoned  owing  to  the  low  price  of  copper 
and  the  difficulty  of  transport.  It  was  formerly  necessary 
to  send  the  barilla  by  carts,  mules,  or  llamas  to  the  port 
of  Arica,  or  else  to  the  Desaguadero  River,  to  be  carried  in 
boats  to  Lake  Titicaca  and  Puno,  thence  by  rail  to  Mol- 
lendo.  With  the  great  increase  in  the  price  of  copper  and 
the  opening  of  the  Arica-La  Paz  Railway  with  a  5  mile 
branch  to  Corocoro,  these  difficulties  were  removed  and 
active  work  progressed  with  a  broad  field  for  enlargement. 
Copper  formation  here  is  said  to  resemble  greatly  those  in 
Northern  Michigan,  such  as  the  Copper  Range,  and  the 
Calumet  and  Hecla.  In  1917  over  82,000,000  pounds  were 
exported,  worth  above  $4,000,000. 

Lead  is  found  in  the  region  of  La  Quiaca  and  some 
is  exported  by  way  of  Argentina.  Galena,  an  ore  of  lead 
and  silver,  is  widespread. 

Bismuth.  Of  less  used  minerals  bismuth  may  be  men- 
tioned, in  the  production  of  which  Bolivia  leads  the  world 
and  controls  the  supply.  At  present,  chiefly  used  as  a  drug 
on  account  of  its  high  price,  it  might  be  more  largely 
employed  in  alloys.  Bismuth  ore,  as  carbonates,  oxides, 
and  arsenical  sulphates,  is  so  abundant  in  many  parts  of 
Bolivia  that  if  bismuth  sold  at  20  cents  a  pound  a  fair  profit 
would  be  realized.  With  the  price  for  years  $3500  a  ton, 
it  would  seem  a  profitable  business  to  engage  in.  Over  one 
million  pounds  were  exported  in  1918  worth  one  and  a  half 
million  dollars. 

Antimony   also   is   found   in   large   quantities.      Nearly 


236  THE  WEST  COAST 

18,000  tons  were  exported  in  1916,  worth  approximately 
$5,000,000,  but  with  high  prices  and  abnormal  demand  due 
to  the  war.  Less  than  one  per  cent  of  the  quantity  was 
exported  in  1912.  The  ores  are  rich,  often  running  70  per 
cent  pure  metal. 

Zinc  in  the  form  of  sulphides  or  blends  is  abundant, 
largely  in  connection  with  silver.  Such  ores  are  sent  to 
Europe,  there  to  be  separated,  the  scarcity  and  almost  pro- 
hibitive price  of  coal  rendering  such  a  course  desirable  for 
various  products,  to  avoid  the  excessive  cost  of  smelting; 
at  the  same  time  the  high  cost  of  transportation  limits  the 
export. 

Wolfram,  an  iron-manganese  tungstate,  is  found  near 
veins  of  tin  and  much  is  exported,  the  production  being 
especially  in  the  Santa  Cruz  district,  at  the  northeast  of 
Cochabamba.  Some  lodes  contain  no  less  than  50  per  cent 
of  tungstic  acid,  the  ores  concentrated  for  export  running 
higher.  About  7^  million  pounds  were  exported  in  1918 
valued  at  nearly  $3,708,000. 

Coal.  The  lack  of  good  coal  is  the  chief  fault  in  nature's 
economy  in  Bolivia.  Its  usual  cost  in  La  Paz  is  $4O-$5O 
a  ton,  at  times  $75.  It  is  therefore  used  as  little  as  possible, 
although  some  is  imported.  While  Bolivia  has  been  said 
to  possess  no  coal  at  all,  a  lignite  of  fair  quality  has  been 
discovered  in  the  peninsula  of  Copacabana,  Lake  Titicaca, 
some  of  which  has  been  used  by  the  Guaqui-La  Paz  Rail- 
way to  develop  electric  power;  but  not  in  serious  fashion, 
experimental  merely.  Other  seams  are  found  near  the 
Ayoap6  station,  which  a  company  has  been  organized  to 
exploit.  Good  samples  have  come  from  Tacora  on  the 
Arica  Railway  near  the  frontier,  the  coal  said  to  be  equal 
to  that  of  Coronel  in  Chile,  the  seams  rich  and  thick.  If  so 
their  exploitation  will  immensely  advance  the  industries 
of  the  country.  Good  coal  is  reported  across  the  mountains 
from  Sorata  and  lignite  is  found  near  Cochabamba. 

On  account  of  the  enormous  cost  of  coal,  various  substi- 


BOLIVIA  237 

tutes  are  in  use.  On  the  plateau  there  is  practically  no 
wood.  For  heating,  foreigners  generally  employ  oil  stoves, 
the  natives  nothing  at  all,  though  the  mercury  may  range 
from  40°  to  50°  in  the  house  on  a  winter's  day.  In  La 
Paz  for  cooking  purposes  a  substance  called  taquia  is 
employed.  It  looks  like  pecan  nuts,  but  is  the  dung  of 
llamas,  which  is  collected  by  Indians  on  the  plateau  or 
elsewhere.  It  sells  generally  at  about  $4  a  ton,  but  has 
lately  risen  to  $7.  It  is  the  principal  fuel  used  at  the  mines 
of  Corocoro.  In  some  places  as  at  Potosi,  yareta  is  used, 
a  vegetable  or  shrub  which  grows  in  a  dense  mass  to  a 
height  of  several  feet  with  a  greater  diameter.  The  green 
mass  has  a  woody  fibre,  is  highly  resinous,  and  burns  like 
peat,  giving  a  good  amount  of  heat.  It  grows  at  altitudes 
between  13,000  and  16,000  feet.  Another  woody  shrub,  a 
species  of  broom  called  tola,  is  used,  with  another,  quenua, 
which  like  charcoal  gives  much  heat  with  little  ash.  Extensive 
peat  beds  exist  near  La  Paz,  estimated  to  yield  30,000,000  tons 
of  briquettes  with  a  fuel  value  about  half  that  of  coal.  The 
discovery  and  wide  exploitation  of  coal  and  petroleum  would 
be  an  immense  boon  both  to  industry  and  to  the  householders. 
Petroleum  is  now  believed  to  exist  in  large  quantities, 
sufficient  to  solve  the  fuel  problem.  The  best  known  fields 
are  in  the  southeast  where  seepages  occur  and  a  belt  is 
indicated  extending  northwest  and  southeast  150  miles  from 
the  Argentine  border.  Concessions  covering  millions  of 
acres  have  been  granted  to  American  companies.  The  zone 
traverses  the  Provinces  of  Santa  Cruz,  Chuquisaca,  and 
Tarija.  Geological  investigations  indicate  that  a  petroleum 
belt  or  basin  exists  along  the  foothills  of  the  east  side  of 
the  East  Cordillera.  There  are  indications  in  the  Beni 
district  a  considerable  distance  north  of  La  Paz,  and  beyond 
the  Madidi  in  Colonias.  A  probable  thickness  of  over-lying 
strata  in  southeast  Bolivia  is  160-660  feet.  If  so  develop- 
ment costs  will  be  diminished.  The  great  difficulty  is  the 
inaccessibility  of  the  locations.  On  this  account  few  wells 


THE  WEST  COAST 

have  yet  been  sunk.  To  pipe  the  oil  up  to  the  plateau 
would  be  an  expensive,  some  say  an  impracticable,  proposi- 
tion. At  present  approached  only  by  cart  roads  or  caminos, 
the  fields  will  be  rendered  more  accessible  by  the  railways 
planned  from  Puerto  Suarez  or  Pacheco  and  from  Argentina 
to  Santa  Cruz.  The  oils  vary  in  quality,  some  having  an 
asphalt  base  with  4  per  cent  of  gasoline,  up  to  .81  specific 
gravity  with  40  per  cent  of  gasoline.  The  heavier  is  in  the 
lower  sands.  Along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes  the  pe- 
troleum is  of  high  grade.  Samples  of  oil  from  Espejos 
Spring,  12  leagues  from  Santa  Cruz,  indicate  the  quality 
expected  north  to  the  Madre  de  Dios.  This  has  78  per  cent 
kerosene,  17  lubricating  oil,  and  4  per  cent  coke.  From  in- 
dications it  is  believed  that  gushers  would  come  by  boring 
to  proper  depth.  It  is  said  that  deposits  of  good  quality 
are  indicated  at  Calacoto  on  the  Arica  Railway,  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Titicaca  fields  of  Peru.  These  are  obviously 
much  more  accessible  but  less  assured. 

Mining  properties  of  various  kinds  may  be  acquired  and 
worked  to  good  advantage,  some  with  a  moderate  outlay 
of  capital;  with  larger  returns,  naturally,  from  greater  ex- 
penditure for  the  best  equipment  and  more  extensive  prop- 
erties. There  is  work  for  centuries. 

INDUSTRIES 

Other  than  mining  industries  are  slightly  developed, 
being  local  in  character  for  lack  of  proper  transportation. 
There  is  therefore  opportunity  for  their  introduction,  the 
needs  meanwhile  being  supplied  by  importation. 

Weaving.  The  weaving  industry  is  one  for  which  the 
natives  are  peculiarly  adapted ;  the  Indians  and  the  mestizos 
now  produce  with  crude  equipment  goods  of  excellent  qual- 
ity for  strength  and  often  for  color.  In  certain  Provinces 
good  strong  cotton  cloth  is  made  which,  used  for  sheeting, 
clothing,  etc.,  lasts  indefinitely.  The  natives  make  also 


BOLIVIA  239 

heavy  woolen  stuff  from  llama  wool,  and  fine  soft  material 
from  vicuna,  alpaca,  and  silk.  But  not  half  enough  is  woven 
to  supply  the  demand,  so  that  much  coarse  cotton  cloth 
and  a  woolen  called  bayeta  are  imported  for  the  use  of  the 
Indians,  as  well  as  fine  goods  for  the  white  population.  The 
llamas,  estimated  as  numbering  500,000,  are  worth  from  $4  to 
$10  each;  the  alpacas,  about  half  as  many,  are  valued  at 
$50-75  each.  There  are  also  500,000  goats. 

Rugs  and  skins  are  exported  in  small  quantities,  the 
animals  from  which  these  are  taken  growing  rarer  and  liable 
to  become  extinct.  Rugs  of  vicuna  skin  have  at  least  doubled 
in  price  since  1906  (their  export  is  forbidden),  as  is  the  case 
also  with  the  chinchilla.  Of  the  latter  there  are  two  varieties, 
the  blue  and  the  white.  They  are  hunted  by  the  Indians  as 
are  also  the  vicunas.  The  former  are  now  crossed  with  the 
inscacha,  a  rodent  resembling  a  hare,  the  resulting  animal 
being  capable  of  domestication.  Though  the  skins  are  inferior 
to  genuine  chinchilla  they  serve  the  purpose. 

It  would  be  a  most  valuable  enterprise  if  the  vicuna  could 
be  domesticated.  At  present  the  animals  are  wild  like  the 
guanaco,  but  the  breeding  of  herds  ought  to  be  possible  if  the 
greatest  care  were  exercised.  The  vicuna  wool  is  probably 
the  finest  existing,  and  if  the  animals  could  be  saved  from 
destruction  and  their  numbers  increased,  a  highly  profitable 
business  would  result.  These  animals,  like  the  guanacos, 
wander  in  small  groups  in  remote  places  at  high  altitudes, 
14,000  to  16,000  feet,  often  difficult  of  access  among  the 
mountains.  These  with  the  llamas  and  alpacas  are  ruminants, 
the  two  latter  domesticated  and  living  in  large  herds. 

The  alpaca  wool  is  much  superior  to  that  of  the  llama 
and  better  than  that  of  the  sheep;  if  the  animals  were 
rationally  bred  on  a  large  scale  the  business  should  be  ex- 
tremely profitable.  The  animal  has  shorter  legs  than  the 
llama  which  it  resembles ;  it  is  never  used  as  a  burden  bearer. 
The  alpaca  flourishes  on  the  Titicaca  Plateau  and  in  higher, 
cold  and  solitary  mountain  sections,  among  seed  bearing 


240  THE  WEST  COAST 

grasses  where  snow  falls  instead  of  rain.  It  requires  better 
forage  than  the  llama.  Pure  water  is  an  absolute  essential. 
Their  long  fleece,  sheared  once  in  two  years,  is  always  in 
great  demand;  a  fleece  weighs  10-15  pounds.  The  alpacas, 
numbering  probably  200,000,  are  tended  by  Indians  whose 
patient  endurance  qualify  them  in  a  measure,  but  who  need 
instruction  to  supervise  them  with  more  intelligent  care. 
There  are  vast  lands  suitable  for  their  breeding  and  culture, 
and  regions  where  sheep,  donkeys,  goats,  and  cattle  may 
be  raised.  None  of  these  industries  is  practised  except  in  a 
small  way,  though  land,  suitable  fodder,  and  climate  are  all 
of  the  best. 

Stock  raising  is  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent  only, 
though  conditions  for  raising  horned  cattle  are  said  to  be 
ideal  on  the  llanos  of  the  southeast,  where  vast  natural 
prairies  alternate  with  forests,  and  many  wild  cattle  exist. 
The  large  possibilities  of  this  region  will  undoubtedly  be 
utilized  before  many  years.  Difficulty  in  reaching  markets 
is  the  great  present  drawback,  but  Argentine  capitalists 
have  looked  over  the  eastern  lowlands  and  may  find  early 
means  for  their  exploitation.  On  the  higher  lands  also  are 
sections  where  the  business  may  be  carried  on  to  advan- 
tage. As  at  present  only  ordinary  stock  is  raised  with  no 
care  in  breeding,  merely  to  supply  local  needs  for  meat, 
there  is  need  of  imported  cattle  and  better  methods,  as  is 
the  case  with  sheep.  Figures  given  for  cattle  are  800,000 
head,  of  sheep  il/2  million.  Many  more  of  the  latter  should 
be  raised  in  some  sections  of  the  plateau  region.  Mutton 
is  more  of  a  staple  food,  largely  used,  dried  and  salted,  by 
the  Indians.  Thus  prepared  it  is  called  chalona;  dried-beef 
is  called  charque.  The  cultivation  of  Siberian  grasses  on  the 
plateau  is  suggested.  Few  hogs  are  raised,  although  many 
districts  are  well  adapted  to  them. 


BOLIVIA  241 

AGRICULTURE 

In  agriculture  Bolivia  has  enormous  possibilities,  but  at 
present  small  production.  About  5,000,000  acres  are  under 
cultivation.  With  the  varying  altitude  and  climate  the  vege- 
table products  are  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  countries, 
many  of  these  spontaneous,  a  few  cultivated.  The  latter  are 
almost  solely  for  internal  consumption.  On  the  plateau  grow 
barley,  quinua,  and  potatoes,  the  last,  when  frozen  called 
chuno,  are  the  basis  of  the  Indians'  diet ;  barley  is  much  used 
for  fodder;  quinua,  a  very  nutritious  millet,  easy  to  cultivate 
and  hardy,  in  the  form  of  meal  among  the  plateau  Indians  takes 
the  place  of  wheat  and  corn,  which  do  not  grow  at  this  alti- 
tude. In  the  valleys  below  there  is  plenty  of  corn,  from  which 
is  made  the  Indians'  favorite  drink,  chicha,  though  they  will 
readily  drink  plain  alcohol  of  poor  quality  when  they  can  get 
it.  Wheat  and  rice  are  raised  in  eastern  Cochabamba,  admir- 
able coffee  in  the  yungas,  cacao,  and  coca;  none  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  supply  the  home  market  except  coca.  Some  coffee 
is  exported  but  more  is  imported  from  Brazil  and  Peru.  All 
needful  supplies  could  be  provided  in  one  or  another  part  of 
the  country  if  population  and  means  of  transport  existed. 

Other  Products.  Cacao  is  less  cultivated  than  coffee, 
though  raised  in  two  departments.  Trees  are  growing  un- 
tended  in  the  Rio  Madidi  and  Madre  de  Dios  sections. 
Sugar  cane  is  cultivated  in  Santa  Cruz  and  elsewhere,  but 
most  of  it  is  used  for  making  aguardiente,  and  molasses  or 
other  syrup.  More  than  200,000  gallons  of  alcohol  come 
annually  from  Santa  Cruz.  Rice  also  is  grown  in  this  De- 
partment giving  two  harvests  a  year.  It  might  be  cultivated 
in  other  sections.  Tobacco  of  excellent  quality  thrives  in 
many  places,  but  not  enough  is  raised  for  home  consump- 
tion. Viticulture  is  slightly  practised  with  primitive  meth- 
ods. Fruits  of  many  varieties  as  in  Peru  are  raised, 
including  especially  fine  oranges.  Various  vegetables  are 
grown  but  in  these  lines  the  development  is  slight  and  poor. 


242  THE  WEST  COAST 

Coca  alone  is  exported  among  agricultural  products, 
chiefly  to  Chile  and  Argentina.  Cultivated  also  in  Cocha- 
bamba  and  Santa  Cruz,  the  chief  centre  is  in  the  yungas  of 
La  Paz.  The  leaf  is  richer  in  alkaloid  than  the  Peruvian,  as 
I  myself  noted,  but  as  yet  it  has  not  been  so  much  exported 
to  Europe  on  account  of  its  higher  price.  The  plantations  are 
in  terraces  on  the  mountain  slopes  between  5000  and  7000  feet 
altitude.  In  the  yungas  the  bushes  are  usually  three  or  four 
feet  high,  but  may  grow  to  seven  or  eight.  A  small  crop  may 
be  gathered  18  months  after  planting,  but  only  in  four  or  five 
years  are  they  in  full  leaf.  Three  times  a  year  the  leaves  are 
gathered,  and  with  good  care  the  plantations  will  last  half  a 
century.  The  leaves  are  picked  by  hand,  dried,  and  stored  in 
a  dry  place,  later  packed  in  bales  and  pressed.  Properly  used 
the  chewing  of  coca  in  the  highlands  may  be  a  blessing.  Car- 
ried to  the  excess  usual  among  the  Indians  it  is  a  curse,  as  it 
is  where  here  used  in  drinks  sold  at  the  soda  counter,  creating 
a  habit  as  vicious  as  that  of  alcohol  or  opium.  For  the  culti- 
vation of  cotton  on  the  lowlands  there  is  much  suitable  soil 
and  climate. 

FORESTRY 

Of  forestal  products  Bolivia  contains  all  those  found  in  the 
other  sections  of  the  Amazon  basin,  varieties  of  timber,  me- 
dicinal plants,  etc.;  but  none  at  present  is  of  commercial 
value  for  export  except  quinine,  manufactured  from  cinchona 
bark,  and  rubber. 

Rubber.  The  rubber  industry  of  Bolivia  is  second  to 
that  of  minerals.  In  amount  of  this  export  the  country  is 
believed  to  be  second  in  South  America  to  Brazil,  though 
little  has  been  touched  of  the  vast  territory  capable  of  its 
production.  Sir  Martin  Conway  estimated  the  rubber  trees 
of  the  Beni  district  as  50,000,000.  There  are  four  zones  of 
rubber  producing  country,  one  in  the  extreme  north  near 
the  Acre  Territory  of  Brazil,  with  outlet  from  the  port  and 


BOLIVIA  243 

custom  house  of  Cobija;  second,  the  greater  part  of  Colonias 
exporting  through  the  national  custom  house  of  Villa  Bella, 
by  Villa  Rica  at  the  confluence  of  the  Abuna  and  the  Ma- 
deira, or  by  lesser  ports;  third,  the  Department  of  La  Paz, 
the  rubber  going  out  by  Lake  Titicaca  and  Mollendo; 
fourth,  Beni,  Santa  Cruz,  and  Cochabamba,  the  rubber  from 
the  north  going  out  by  Guajara  Merim  or  Villa  Bella,  that 
farther  south  by  Puerto  Suarez  on  the  Paraguay  or  by 
Yacuiba,  and  from  the  west  by  Oruro  and  Antofagasta. 
The  rubber  of  the  region  is  chiefly  that  called  fine  Para,  most 
of  it  exported  through  that  port  and  being  of  the  best  quality. 
The  latex  of  the  hevea  is  the  source ;  sernamby  is  second  quality 
made  of  the  residue  of  the  finer  quality  mixed  with  bark.  The 
caucho  from  the  castilloa  elastica  is  little  exploited  on  account 
of  few  laborers  and  expensive  transport.  With  the  opening  of 
the  Madeira-Mamore  Railway  in  1912  better  facilities  were 
secured,  this  railway  having  been  built  a  distance  of  207  miles 
along  the  Brazilian  shore  to  avoid  the  bad  rapids  on  the  two 
rivers.  The  flooding  of  the  market  with  Malay  and  Ceylon 
rubber  seriously  affected  Bolivian  production  and  export,  but 
these  have  recently  increased.  With  the  forming  of  plantations 
in  this  section,  a  work  which  an  American  company  has  under- 
taken, the  rubber  should  be  better  able  to  compete  with  that 
of  Ceylon,  as  its  superior  quality  is  known.  The  fact  that 
the  Bolivian  export  tax  is  lower  than  that  of  Brazil  gives  the 
former  an  advantage. 

In  the  Department  of  Cochabamba  are  great  quantities  of 
manigoba  trees  producing  rubber  known  as  ceara,  of  good 
quality  but  not  the  best.  It  might  be  cultivated  in  hilly  regions 
and  on  banks  of  streams  of  the  Yungas  and  other  valleys  in 
the  Department  of  La  Paz.  The  lot  of  the  seringueiros,  the 
rubber  workers,  is  bad;  it  may  and  must  be  bettered  if  the 
industry  is  to  continue.  The  establishing  of  plantations  will 
be  a  great  improvement,  but  some  amenities  of  life  might  be 
made  available  even  in  the  ordinary  forest. 


244  THE  WEST  COAST 

INVESTMENTS 

From  the  description  of  Bolivia,  it  is  apparent  that  mining 
presents  the  most  attractive  field  for  the  large  capitalist. 
Mining  experts  with  less  money  may  be  tempted  to  inves- 
tigate gold  prospects  or  to  search  for  rich  veins  of  other 
metals,  later  organizing  companies  for  their  development 
or  selling  at  a  handsome  profit  their  acquired  claims,  as 
some  persons  have  done  hitherto.  However  sales  are  not 
always  easily  made.  Petroleum  is  numbered  among  the 
mining  possibilities,  although  the  most  favorably  located 
fields  may  be  preempted  already,  chiefly  by  American  Com- 
panies, the  Braden  and  the  Richmond  "Levering,  in  spite  of 
the  difficulties  of  access  and  development.  The  petroleum 
procured  would  find  its  market  in  Bolivia  and  in  the  neigh- 
boring countries  of  the  East  and  West  Coasts  where  it  is 
greatly  needed.  The  oil  with  a  paraffin  base  is  of  high  grade 
running  to  45.8  Baume. 

Stock  raising  of  various  kinds  would  be  profitable  in 
certain  localities,  and  some  forms  of  agriculture  and  small 
industries.  Railway  construction,  the  development  of  elec- 
tric power,  the  installation  of  sanitary  and  other  public 
works  will  afford  many  openings  for  engineers. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

CHILE:  AREA,   HISTORY,   GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  ETC. 

The  country  of  Chile,  the  seventh  in  size  of  the  South 
American  Republics,  is  frequently  ranked  with  the  two 
largest,  Brazil  and  Argentina,  owing  to  the  enterprise  of  its 
inhabitants:  a  natural  result  of  their  location  in  the  tem- 
perate zone,  from  17°  57'  to  55°  59'  South  Latitude;  in- 
creased perhaps  by  their  long  struggle  with  the  Araucanian 
Indians. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  Chile,  with  an  extent  of  290,000  square  miles,  is 
ribbon  like  in  shape,  having  a  length  of  nearly  2700  miles, 
a  trifle  more  than  Argentina;  in  a  direct  line  2140  miles, 
with  a  width  of  70-248,  miles  averaging  about  85. 

Population.  The  country  with  approximately  4,000,000 
inhabitants  is  fifth  in  this  respect. 

Boundary.  The  boundary  of  Chile  is  simple.  At  the 
north  is  Peru,  on  the  east  are  Bolivia  and  Argentina,  at  the 
south  and  west  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

HISTORY 

The  bold  Spanish  invaders  of  Peru  might  reasonably 
have  been  contented  for  a  time  with  the  conquest  of  that 
vast  territory.  But  Diego  de  Almagro,  incited  by  the  grant 
of  200  leagues  south  of  .those  bestowed  upon  Pizarro,  and 
enticed  by  the  tales  of  a  region  richer  still  in  gold  and  silver, 
set  forth  to  gain  possession  of  the  allotted  lands,  not  long 
after  the  founding  of  Lima  in  1535.  Over  the  great  Bolivian 
Plateau  and  a  high  mountain  pass  into  Chile,  Almagro 

245 


246  THE  WEST  COAST 

marched  with  his  followers,  only  to  return  disappointed 
after  enduring  untold  hardships  and  suffering. 

A  few  years  later  a  second  expedition  was  undertaken 
by  Pedro  de  Valdivia,  this  one  along  the  shore.  From  Arica 
proceeding  by  sea,  having  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Maipo,  in  February,  1541,  Valdivia  founded  the  city  of 
Santiago.  Still  unsatisfied  he  continued  south,  in  spite  of 
much  opposition,  making  settlements  at  Concepcion,  Im- 
perial, Villa  Rica,  and  Valdivia;  but  in  1553  he  was  himself 
slain  by  the  warlike  Araucanians,  who  long  disputed  with 
the  invaders  the  occupation  of  their  country.  For  250  years 
the  contest  continued  intermittently,  with  some  diminution 
and  amalgamation  of  the  Indians,  till  the  Chilians  rose  against 
Spain,  when  a  more  friendly  feeling  was  established. 

The  Chilians,  who  convoked  a  national  congress  in  1810, 
regard  this  event  as  the  inauguration  of  their  independence; 
though  not  until  1818  was  it  secured  with  the  aid  of  San 
Martin  and  his  army  from  Argentina.  Chile  subsequently 
experienced  many  internal  difficulties,  but  after  1861  the 
Government  became  more  liberal,  and  since  that  period, 
except  for  the  revolution  against  Balmaceda  in  1890,  the 
country  has  been  free  from  serious  internal  strife. 

GOVERNMENT 

The  government  is  that  of  a  centralized  republic  with  the 
usual  three  branches.  The  President,  elected  for  a  term  of 
five  years  and  not  eligible  at  once  for  a  second  term,  appoints 
the  Intendentes  and  Gobernadores  who  respectively  administer 
the  23  Provinces,  and  their  subdivisions,  the  82  Departments. 
There  is  one  Territory,  Magallanes,  which  includes  the  south- 
ern mainland  and  the  coastal  islands.  The  police  force  is 
national  in  organization.  In  the  Provinces  no  legislative  bodies 
exist  save  municipal  councils  with  certain  local  duties.  The 
franchise  is  so  restricted  (the  voters  must  have  property 
and  be  able  to  read  and  write)  that  as  25  per  cent  of  the 
population  is  illiterate  and  most  of  the  laboring  class  land- 


CHILE 


247 


less,  the  Government  is  said  to  be  practically  in  the  hands 
of  a  few  leading  families.  Senators,  37  in  number,  must 
have  an  income  of  $2000  and  Deputies,  118,  one  of  $500. 
The  President  must  not  leave  the  country  while  in  office. 

Chile  has  23  Provinces,  all  but  five  of  which  border  on 
the  Pacific,  and  one  Territory.  Beginning  at  the  north  the 
names  of  the  Provinces  follow  with  their  approximate  areas 
and  population,  and  with  the  names  and  population  of  their 
capitals : 


PROVINCES 

AREA, 
in  square 
miles 

POPULA- 
TION 

CAPITALS 

POPULA- 
TION 

Tacna  

9,000 

40,000 

Tacna  

8,000 

Tarapaccl  

17,000 

114,000 

Iquique.  .  , 

4.5.  OOO 

Antof  agasta  

4.6.5OO 

22O,OOO 

Antof  agasta  

66  ooo 

Atacama     

li  .000 

67.OOO 

Copiap6  

13  ooo 

I4..OOO 

191,000 

La  Serena  

16  ooo 

5.4.00 

140,000 

San  Felipe  

12,000 

1,775 

14.7,000 

Valparaiso  

212,000 

Santiago  

5,000 

627,000 

Santiago  

450  ooo 

O'Higgins  

2,  1  68 

125,000 

Rancagua  

13  ooo 

l.QOO 

163,000 

San  Fernando  

10,000 

1.04.  5 

115,000 

Curic6  

23,000 

Talca.  ...4  

l.QOO 

115.  OOO 

Talca  .      ... 

42  ooo 

Maule  

2,800 

125,000 

Cauquenes  

12  OOO 

Linares  

4..OOO 

120,000 

Linares  

3,000 

Nuble  

1.5OO 

IQQ.OOO 

Chilian  

40,000 

Concepci6n  

1.1OO 

27I,OOO 

Concepci6n.  .  .    . 

72  7OO 

2,200 

74..OOO 

Arauco  

1  5OO 

Bio-Bio  

5.4.OO 

IO6,OOO 

Los  Angeles  

I4,OOO 

1.1OO 

116,000 

Angol  

IO,OOO 

Cautin  

6,400 

I75.OOO 

Temuco  

11.  OOO 

Valdivia  

o.ooo 

187  ooo 

Valdivia           .    .    . 

26  ooo 

Llanquihue  

15.OOO 

150  ooo 

Puerto  Montt.    . 

8  ooo 

Chilo6  

7.OOO 

IOO,OOO 

Ancud  

4  ooo 

TERRITORY 
Magallanes  

65.OOO 

12  OOO 

Punta  Arenas  . 

20  ooo 

248  THE  WEST  COAST 

POPULATION 

The  population  of  Chile  is  little  if  any  below  4,000,000, 
which  gives  it  an  average  of  12  or  more  to  the  square  mile, 
the  highest  rate  of  all  the  North  and  West  Coast  countries. 
There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  different  Provinces, 
but  less  than  in  the  other  Republics,  if  the  Territory  is 
omitted.  The  most  thickly  inhabited  region  is  from  Val- 
paraiso south  to  Valdivia;  the  Province  of  Santiago  having 
the  largest  population  and  that  of  Valparaiso  the  densest. 
As  to  the  character  of  the  population  it  is  estimated  that  40 
per  cent  are  of  white  extraction,  with  at  least  50-60  per 
cent  mestizos;  probably  50,000  Indians,  including  possibly 
5000  in  the  far  south,  uncivilized  and  dying  out.  The  edu- 
cated class  as  in  other  countries  forms  a  small  minority 
of  the  inhabitants,  but  in  recent  years  greater  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  the  com- 
mon people. 

EDUCATION 

The  middle  and  upper  classes  pay  much  attention  to  edu- 
cation. In  Santiago  there  are  two  universities,  the  larger 
the  University  of  Chile,  open  also  to  women,  and  the  Cath- 
olic University,  each  with  various  departments;  a. National 
Institute  or  high  school,  a  School  of  Mines,  a  Normal 
School,  a  School  of  Arts  and  Trades.  In  La  Serena  and 
Copiapo  at  the  north  are  other  Mining  Schools,  and  in 
cities  at  the  south  Schools  of  Agriculture;  also  Normal 
Schools.  An  Industrial  College  is  to  be  opened  in  Valpa- 
raiso. All  towns  have  elementary  schools;  in  all  State 
schools  including  universities  education  is  free,  and  in 
primary  grades  from  1921  compulsory.  There  are  various 
private  schools,  in  Santiago  a  large  and  excellent  one  for 
boys  (managed  for  years  by  American  Methodists),  where 
the  sons  of  many  prominent  families  have  been  educated, 
as  in  La  Paz,  Bolivia. 


CHILE  249 

PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

Press.  The  Press  is  free,  influential,  and  of  high  char- 
acter, the  Mer curio  of  Valparaiso  and  Santiago  having  a 
world  wide  reputation,  and  ranking  with  the  best  of  any 
country.  There  are  about  700  newspapers  and  journals. 

Religion.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  recognized 
as  that  of  the  State,  but  freedom  is  permitted  to  others. 
The  women  generally  are  very  devout,  though  as  in  the 
other  countries  the  men  of  the  governing  classes  are  inclined 
to  agnosticism. 

Telegraph.  Chile  possesses  30,000  miles  of  telegraph 
lines  and  46,000  of  telephone.  There  are  32  wireless  stations 
at  intervals  from  Arica  down  to  Punta  Arenas,  with  one  on 
Juan  Fernandez  Island. 

Money.  A  gold  peso  (there  are  no  such  coins)  may  be 
regarded  as  worth  36  cents,  but  the  paper  money  which  is 
in  general  use  fluctuates  in  value,  a  peso  varying  from  14 
to  25  cents,  usually  18-22.  There  are  silver  coins  of  10,  20, 
40  centavos,  and  copper  of  smaller  value. 

The  Metric  System  of  weights  and  measures  is  obli- 
gatory, all  others  being  excluded  by  law. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
CHILE:  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  country  of  Chile  has  an  extraordinary  shape,  very 
long  and  narrow.  Unlike  the  other  Republics  of  the  West 
Coast,  Chile  has  no  trans-Andine  region,  as  the  watershed 
of  the  Andes  constitutes  the  eastern  boundary  line.  Thus 
confined  between  the  sea  and  the  mountain  tops,  while  the 
coast  line  of  the  country  is  nearly  2700  miles,  as  far  as  from 
Labrador  to  Guiana,  the  width  is  scanty,  mostly  varying 
from  loo  to  225  miles,  though  at  one  point  in  the  south 
the  western  boundary  of  Argentina  is  but  26  miles  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Although  so  narrow  for  most  of  the  distance,  Chile  has 
three  sections  longitudinally:  a  very  narrow  coastal  strip, 
a  plateau,  or  a  central  valley,  and  the  mountain  region.  Its 
remarkable  length  from  18°  S.  Lat.,  several  degrees  in  the 
torrid  zone,  to  56°,  well  towards  the  Antarctic  Circle,  gives 
it  a  wide  range  in  climate  arising  from  the  latitude,  as  well 
as  the  variation  from  the  altitude  which  it  shares  wfth  the 
countries  previously  mentioned.  From  north  to  south  also, 
the  Republic  has  three  zones :  the  hot  arid  land  at  the  north, 
i8°-32°,  followed  by  the  temperate  agricultural  section  in 
the  centre  to  42°,  and  the  cool,  rainy,  forested  lands  at  the 
south ;  sometimes  four  sections  are  spoken  of,  in  which  case 
the  first  is  regarded  as  two,  dividing  at  27°  into  the  nitrate 
section  north  and  a  mineral,  south.  Of  these  two  the  former 
has  a  plateau  section  between  the  Andes  and  the  sea,  the 
latter  some  transverse  ridges.  The  country  has  25  per  cent 
in  woods  and  forests,  7^  per  cent  in  pastures,  5  irrigable 
land  and  i2l/2  per  cent  arable. 

250 


CHILE  251 

As  already  noted,  the  Pacific  Coast  south  of  Ecuador  is 
a  practically  rainless  desert  for  a  distance  of  1600  miles 
along  the  shore  of  Peru  and  Chile,  about  as  far  as  Coquimbo. 
Here  begins  the  agricultural  centre  of  Chile,  including  the 
rich  longitudinal  valley  (with  soil  330  feet  deep),  in  which 
the  capital,  Santiago,  is  situated;  the  valley  extends  from 
the  Aconcagua  River  to  the  Gulf  of  Ancud,  620  miles.  Many 
populous  towns  and  ports  are  in  this  section,  among  them 
Valparaiso.  The  forest  country  farther  south  is  but  sparsely 
settled. 

Mountains.  The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  which  extends 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  country,  and  is  con- 
tinued at  the  north  by  the  Cordillera  of  Peru,  is  recognized 
from  its  geological  formation  as  belonging  to  a  recent  epoch. 
It  contains  many  volcanoes,  mostly  extinct  or  inactive  ex- 
cept in  the  south.  Aconcagua,  of  volcanic  origin,  the  high- 
est peak  of  the  Andes  and  of  all  America  so  far  as  is  yet 
known,  is  a  little  north  of  the  centre.  Its  summit  is  just 
over  the  border  in  Argentina,  as  the  watershed  forming  the 
boundary  here  runs  west  of  the  line  of  greatest  altitude. 
The  height  of  Aconcagua  is  variously  stated,  but  22,817  feet 
has  perhaps  the  best  authority.  Other  lofty  peaks  are  near, 
Mercedario  and  Tupungato,  each  over  22,000  feet.  There 
are  24  passes  across  the  range  at  a  height  of  10,000  feet  more 
or  less.  Farther  south  the  mountains  diminish  rapidly  in 
height  with  few  summits  above  10,000  feet.  The  range  ends 
in  Tierra  del  Fuego  with  Mt.  Sarmiento,  7000  feet. 

A  cordillera  of  the  coast,  geologically  older,  is  much 
lower,  disappearing  altogether  at  the  north.  In  general 
quite  steep  towards  the  sea,  it  slopes  gradually  towards  the 
central  valley  or  plateau.  This  range  continues  at  the  south 
in  islands,  which  in  great  numbers  fringe  the  coast.  Here 
the  shore  is  much  indented  with  straits  and  bays,  resem- 
bling the  fjords  of  Norway.  Nearly  all  of  the  narrowing 
point  of  the  continent,  the  entire  Strait  of  Magellan,  and 
most  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  belong  to  Chile. 


252  THE  WEST  COAST 

RIVERS 

The  rivers  of  the  country  are  numerous  except  in  the 
north,  where  but  two  reach  the  ocean.  Farther  south  to 
35°  they  are  torrential  in  character,  but  important  both  for 
irrigation  and  as  a  potential  source  of  hydro-electric  power ; 
their  descent  from  so  great  a  height  indicating  large  future 
possibilities.  Beyond  35°  a  number  of  streams  are  navigable 
for  some  distance  for  boats  of  light  draught,  500  miles  in 
all,  the  Bio-Bio  for  100  miles,  the  Maule  for  75.  South  of 
these  rivers  are  many  picturesque  and  important  lakes  close 
to  the  Cordillera  where  they  serve  as  great  reservoirs  for 
the  excessive  precipitation  of  rain  and  snow  on  the  west 
side  of  the  mountains.  The  largest  are  Lakes  Rauco  and 
Llanquihue,  with  estimated  areas  respectively  of  200  and 
250  square  miles.  Lake  Todos  los  Santos,  40  square  miles, 
described  as  of  marvelous  beauty,  is  northeast  of  Puerto 
Montt  among  the  Andean  foothills,  at  a  height  of  500  feet. 

The  seaboard  at  the  north,  with  few  indentations,  has  in 
consequence  poor  harbors,  where  landing  in  small  boats 
may  occasionally  be  dangerous  or  impossible.  In  the  far 
south  are  sheltered  harbors,  but  few  cities  requiring  them. 

CLIMATE 

The  climate  of  the  country  naturally  is  extremely  varied. 
In  the  northern  section  the  immediate  coast  like  that  of 
Peru  is  preserved  from  intense  heat  by  the  Antarctic  cur- 
rent. A  little  way  back  on  the  arid  plateau  the  temperature 
is  excessive  by  day  but  cool  at  night.  Going  south  from  the 
arid  section  the  rainfall  gradually  increases  until  in  the  far 
south  there  is  too  much.  The  central  regions  have  a  fair 
supply  with  an  excellent  climate,  mean  annual  temperatures 
of  5o°-6o°.  Farther  south  with  rain  150-170  days  in  the 
year,  in  some  places  80-100  inches,  the  climate  is  less 
agreeable.  The  winds  are  generally  west,  either  a  little 


CHILE  253 

north  or  south.  While  the  mean  temperatures  are  fairly 
low,  the  extremes  are  much  less  than  at  the  same  latitudes 
in  most  parts  of  North  America  or  on  the  East  Coast  o! 
Argentina.  Even  at  the  farthest  south,  at  Punta  Arenas, 
the  most  southern  city  of  the  globe,  the  weather  is  never 
so  cold  as  often  in  the  usual  winters  of  New  York  or  Boston. 
Until  recently  suitable  sanitation  has  been  lacking  in  many 
cities  and  the  death  rate  has  been  high.  Now  the  authori- 
ties are  alive  to  these  matters  and  with  the  installation  of 
proper  sewerage,  already  accomplished  in  Santiago  and  in 
progress  in  other  cities,  the  death  rate  is  lower.  In  no 
cities  from  Guayaquil  south  need  any  tourist  be  apprehen- 
sive of  danger. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
CHILE:  CAPITAL,  INDIVIDUAL  PROVINCES,  CITIES 


Santiago,  the  capital,  with  450,000  inhabitants,  is  the 
fourth  in  population  of  the  cities  of  South  America,  the  first 
three  being  Buenos  Aires,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Sao  Paulo. 
The  city  is  finely  located  in  the  fertile  Central  Valley,  on 
the  Mapocho  River.  Important  as  the  Government  and 
social  centre,  it  has  much  commercial  activity.  A  little  off 
the  direct  Trans-Andine  line  between  Valparaiso  and 
Buenos  Aires,  it  is  equally  a  terminus,  as  special  cars  run 
to  each  city  from  Los  Andes  where  they  connect  with  the 
narrower  mountain  railway.  Santiago  is  the  centre  of  the 
north  and  south  railway  systems  which  traverse  the  country 
almost  from  end  to  end. 

A  lack  of  first  class  hotels  has  been  partially  remedied 
by  the  construction  of  a  large  one  on  modern  lines,  but 
it  may  be  said  that  in  all  of  the  capital  cities  and  chief  ports 
of  the  West  Coast  additional  accommodations  of  a  higher 
class  are  desirable.  In  Santiago  important  improvements 
recently  accomplished  include  the  installment  of  a  sewerage 
system  and  the  repavement  of  the  principal  streets.  .Electric 
lights  have  long  been  enjoyed  and  an  excellent  system  of 
electric  cars,  one  feature  of  which  New  York  might  imitate 
to  advantage,  the  numbering  of  the  cars  to  indicate  the 
various  routes.  Santiago  in  addition  to  its  delightful  loca- 
tion may  well  boast  of  its  fine  buildings,  especially  its  Capi- 
tol, the  handsome  opera  house,  and  many  fine  residences; 
still  more  of  its  parks,  the  far  famed  Santa  Lucia,  Parque 

254 


CHILE,    ARGENTINA,    PARAGUAY,    URUGUAY 


CHILE  255 

Cousifio,  and  the  Quinta  Normal ;  also  of  the  Palace  of  Fine 
Arts,  and  the  Cemetery,  especially  beautiful  in  rose  time. 
Most  of  the  streets  are  narrow,  but  there  is  one  splendid 
broad  avenue,  the  Alameda  or  Avenida  de  Delicias  with  a 
central  parkway  ornamented  with  statuary. 

PROVINCES 

A  brief  review  of  the  Provinces  follows,  beginning  at  the 
north.  Unless  otherwise  stated,  the  Provinces  extend  from  the 
coast  back  to  the  mountains,  bordering  at  the  east  on  Bolivia 
or  Argentina. 

Tacna,  formerly  a  part  of  Peru,  is  still  claimed  by  that 
country,  though  in  the  possession  of  Chile.  It  is  separated 
by  the  Sama  River  from  the  Peruvian  Province,  Moquegua. 
Largely  mountainous,  Tacna  has  many  peaks  above  18,000 
feet;  the  two  passes  to  Bolivia  are  about  14,000  feet.  Of 
500,000  acres  of  possible  agricultural  land  about  one  tenth 
is  irrigated,  the  rest  is  desert.  Alfalfa  is  the  chief  produc- 
tion ;  beans  and  maize  are  important  with  other  vegetables 
and  fruit.  The  leading  export  is  sulphur. 

The  capital,  Tacna,  is  a  pleasant  town,  connected  by  rail 
with  the  port  of  Arica,  though  it  is  not  on  the  road  to  La 
Paz.  Arica,  with  a  better  harbor  than  most  of  the  others, 
is  an  important  primary  port  where  all  steamers  call,  as  it 
is  the  terminus  of  the  Arica-La  Paz  Railway;  one  of  the 
three  Pacific  outlets  for  Bolivia.  New  docks  are  to  be 
constructed. 

Tarapaca"  follows  on  the  south,  this  Province  containing 
with  other  minerals,  extensive,  hot,  arid  plains  with  nitrate 
fields.  The  sloping  coastal  section  has  two  important  ports, 
Pisagua  and  Iquique,  besides  smaller  ones  exclusively  for 
the  export  of  nitrates,  in  which  the  two  named  are  chiefly 
engaged. 

Iquique,  the  capital  and  principal  port,  is  of  great  com- 
mercial importance  for  such  export,  and  has  very  large  im- 


256  THE  WEST  COAST 

ports  from  the  fact  that  these  include  all  eatables  as  for- 
merly all  drinkables,  even  water.  Now  the  water  comes  in 
pipes  150  miles  from  the  mountains.  The  soil  too  was  im- 
ported for  the  few  plazas  and  gardens  existing,  as  nothing 
will  grow  in  the  native  soil.  It  is  an  enterprising  community 
with  a  good  proportion  of  pleasant  British  homes,  clubs, 
theatres,  etc. 

Antofagasta  comes  next,  separated  from  Tarapaca  by  the 
River  Loa.  On  the  east  it  has  both  Bolivia  and  a  piece  of 
northern  Argentina.  The  surface  descends  from  the  Andes 
in  a  series  of  plateaus.  Vegetation  is  scanty.  This  Prov- 
ince, with  Atacama  on  the  south,  shares  in  the  activities  of  the 
nitrate  industry. 

The  capital  city,  Antofagasta,  is  200  miles  south  of 
Iquique,  both  ports  having  very  poor  harbors,  though  with 
enormous  commerce  for  places  of  their  size.  Antofagasta, 
the  terminus  of  a  third  railway  from  La  Paz,  the  second  in 
Chile,  has  much  Bolivian  trade  besides  export  of  nitrates, 
and  lately  from  Chuquicamata  of  copper.  The  Province 
contains  other  ports  and  cities  of  consequence,  Taltal,  Toco- 
pilla,  Mejillones,  etc. 

Atacama  on  the  south  borders  exclusively  at  the  east  on 
Argentina,  which  from  here  down  forms  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  Chile.  The  surface  of  the  Province  is  uneven,  with 
mountains,  plateaus,  and  ravines;  in  the  valleys  of  Huasco 
and  Copiapo  there  is  some  agriculture.  Minerals,  as  gold, 
silver,  and  copper  receive  attention. 

Copiapo,  the  capital,  is  an  important  railway  junction. 

Coquimbo,  following,  is  a  narrower  Province,  the  moun- 
tains and  the  Argentine  boundary  coming  nearer  the  shore. 
There  are  many  lofty  peaks  at  the  east ;  and  between  spurs 
running  down  to  the  coast  are  fertile,  well  watered  valleys, 
as  we  now  come  to  the  central  section  where  with  a  mild 
climate  there  is  moderate  rainfall.  Cereals,  fruit,  wine,  and 
livestock  are  exported. 

La  Serena,  the  capital,  is  a  pretty  town,  which  has  tram- 


CHILE  S57 

way  connection  with  Coquimbo,  a  first  class  port,  and  a  busy 
city. 

Aconcagua  is  next,  with  the  great  peak  of  that  name  in 
the  range  at  the  east.  Some  15  miles  south  of  the  peak  is 
the  Uspallata  Pass,  for  many  years  the  main  commercial 
highway  between  Chile  and  Argentina.  By  this  Pass  came 
Almagro,  and  later  a  division  of  the  army  of  San  Martin ; 
another  division  by  the  pass  of  Los  Patos,  a  little  lower 
and  farther  north,  by  which  cattle  are  often  driven  into 
Chile.  The  Province  is  chiefly  agricultural  and  pastoral, 
with  crops  of  cereals,  fruits,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  The  finest 
wine  is  produced ;  there  are  large  herds  of  cattle ;  and  copper 
has  some  exploitation. 

Valparaiso,  one  of  the  two  Provinces  bordering  on  Acon- 
cagua at  the  south,  is  next  to  the  smallest  in  the  Republic, 
and  the  first  coming  from  the  north  which  does  not  extend 
across  the  country.  With  Aconcagua  on  the  north  it  has  San- 
tiago on  the  east  and  south.  The  surface  is  mountainous  with 
extensive  valleys,  the  Coast  Range  here  reaching  a  height  of 
7000  feet.  Several  rivers  and  a  number  of  bays  are  among  its 
favorable  features.  With  a  mild  climate  and  sufficient  rain 
agriculture  is  the  principal  industry  aside  from  the  commercial 
interests  of  the  chief  port  of  the  West  Coast,  Valparaiso. 

Santiago,  south  of  Aconcagua  and  east  of  Valparaiso, 
extends  from  Argentina  on  the  east,  south  of  Valparaiso  to 
the  sea,  and  has  the  two  Provinces  of  O'Higgins  and  Col- 
chagua  on  the  south.  The  Central  Valley,  which  occupies 
a  great  part  of  its  area,  is  here  a  broad  plain,  part  of  which 
is  well  watered  and  fertile  but  with  some  sections  arid; 
the  foothills  and  valleys  are  well  wooded.  The  Central 
Valley  slopes  towards  the  west,  having  an  altitude  of  nearly 
3000  feet  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  and  about  1000  feet  near 
the  hills  of  the  Coast  Range.  The  highest  point  of  the 
Andes,  here  south  of  Mt.  Aconcagua,  is  less  than  20,000  feet 
while  the  Coast  Range  approaches  8000.  Cereals,  vege- 


258  THE  WEST  COAST 

tables,  fruit,  and  wine  are  the  chief  products.  Among  other 
towns  in  the  Province  is  the  port  of  San  Antonio. 

O'Higgins,  a  very  small  Province,  occupies  what  may  be 
called  a  jog  at  the  southeast  corner  of  Santiago,  which  is 
therefore  on  the  west  and  north,  while  Argentina  is  east 
and  Colchagua  south.  Although  a  rugged  district,  irriga- 
tion is  developed  and  large  crops  of  cereals  and  fruit  are 
grown.  Rich  in  mineral  deposits,  copper  alone  is  exploited. 

Colchagua,  south  of  Santiago  and  O'Higgins,  extends 
across  the  country  from  the  sea  to  the  mountains,  which 
have  three  easy  passes  into  Argentina.  The  plains  of  the 
Central  Valley  have  a  rich  soil  and  good  rainfall,  but  as  the 
summers  are  dry,  as  in  Santiago,  irrigation  is  needful.  Crops 
of  wheat,  beans,  alfalfa,  etc.,  are  important,  and  also  the 
cattle  industry. 

Curico  follows  across  the  south  with  similar  features  and 
productions. 

Talca  is  next,  also  extending  from  the  coast  to  Argen- 
tina. With  a  temperate  climate,  there  are  greater  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  on  the  plain.  Besides  the  agricultural  and 
cattle  industries,  the  dense  forests  here  afford  opportunity 
for  exploitation.  Two  Provinces  are  on  the  south. 

Linares,  the  more  eastern,  has  Argentina  on  the  east, 
Nuble  south,  and  Maule  west.  With  considerable  agricul- 
tural land,  along  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Andes  it  has  dense 
woods. 

Maule,  the  coast  Province  south  of  Talca,  has  both 
Linares  and  Nuble  on  the  east,  and  Concepcion  south.  The 
valleys  of  the  Coast  Cordillera,  which  are  fertile,  afford 
opportunity  for  increased  agriculture,  but  unwise  defores- 
tation has  been  injurious. 

Nuble,  again  an  Andean  Province,  between  Argentina 
and  Maule,  is  south  of  Linares  and  north  of  Concepcion. 
Easy  passes  lead  into  Argentina,  forests  are  extensive,  and 
vines  and  cereals  are  grown  on  a  large  scale. 


CHILE  259 

Conception,  south  of  Maule  and  Nuble,  extends  from  the 
Pacific  to  Argentina.  Mountainous  at  the  east,  it  is  rather 
arid  in  the  centre,  but  extremely  fertile  near  the  coast.  The 
fine  crops  include  grapes  and  excellent  wine.  Large  forests 
and  extensive  coal  deposits  are  a  source  of  wealth. 

Arauco  and  Bio-Bio  are  on  the  south ;  Arauco  along  the 
coast,  with  important  agriculture  and  large  herds  of  cattle, 
has  also  extensive  forests  and  mineral  deposits,  coal  mines 
actively  worked,  and  gold,  both  alluvial  and  quartz. 

Bio-Bio  at  the  east  is  mountainous  and  well  watered,  as 
is  this  region  in  general.  Cereals  are  largely  grown  and 
viticulture  is  practised.  The  cattle  industry  is  important 
and  the  forests  are  exploited. 

Malleco,  south  of  Bio-Bio,  is  peculiar  in  the  fact  that  it 
alone  of  the  Provinces  touches  neither  the  Pacific  nor  Ar- 
gentina, having  a  strip  of  Bio-Bio  and  Cautin  on  the  east 
and  Arauco  on  the  west.  The  mountainous  eastern  section 
is  heavily  wooded  and  the  fertile  central  plain  with  a  mild 
damp  climate  is  celebrated  for  its  crops  of  wheat. 

Cautin,  extending  all  the  way  across  the  country,  touches 
three  Provinces  on  the  north,  Arauco,  Malleco,  and  Bio-Bio. 
Here  are  plains,  mountains,  and  valleys,  with  much  rainfall 
and  luxuriant  vegetation  of  forest,  grass,  and  agriculture. 
Excellent  timber  and  tannin  extracts,  fruit  and  cattle,  pro- 
duce wealth,  and  coal  and  gold  await  exploitation. 

Valdivia,  south  of  Cautin,  also  extends  across  the  coun- 
try. Here  are  lower  mountains,  many  passes  into  Argen- 
tina, extensive  forests,  several  lakes,  much  rain;  but  a 
healthful  climate,  luxuriant  vegetation,  with  profitable  agri- 
culture, forest  products,  and  cattle  breeding. 

Llanquihue  follows,  extending  south  to  the  Gulf  of 
Ancud  and  beyond.  The  present  southern  terminus  of  the 
Longitudinal  Railway  is  the  capital,  Puerto  Montt,  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf.  This  is  largely  a  forest  region,  though 
in  the  valley  of  the  lakes  are  fertile  lands  suited  to  grazing 


260  THE  WEST  COAST 

and  agriculture,  both  of  which  industries  are  increasingly 
followed.  The  climate  is  rather  cool  but  equable. 

Chiloe,  the  last  of  the  Provinces,  consists  of  the  large 
island  of  that  name  covering  about  560  square  miles,  other 
islands  much  smaller,  and  a  long  archipelago  called  Chonos 
extending  to  the  peninsula  of  Taitao.  The  island,  Chiloe, 
is  largely  covered  with  forests  which,  strange  to  say,  have 
a  somewhat  tropical  character,  with  fine  timber,  dense 
undergrowth,  and  trailing  vines;  for  the  climate,  with  ex- 
cessive rainfall,  is  extremely  mild  for  the  latitude,  which 
corresponds  to  that  of  Massachusetts.  Cereals,  potatoes, 
and  fruit  are  grown,  and  many  pigs  are  raised;  though 
forestry,  and  fishing  are  of  greater  importance. 

The  Territory  of  Magallanes  extends  from  the  47th 
parallel  south  including  the  mainland  and  islands,  with 
mountains,  rivers,  forest,  and  plains.  On  the  coast  the  cli- 
mate is  not  severe ;  in  the  interior  it  is  more  rigorous.  Cat- 
tle and  sheep  raising  are  the  most  profitable  industries; 
whaling  and  forestry  are  important. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
CHILE:  PORTS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

PORTS 

Although  Chile  cannot  boast  of  many  excellent  harbors, 
with  her  extended  coast  line  her  ports  are  naturally  nu- 
merous; 59  is  the  official  number,  of  which  15  are  primary 
ports  with  custom  houses,  while  the  rest  are  dependent, 
save  Punta  Arenas,  which  is  proudly  apart  as  a  free  port, 
the  only  one  in  this  part  of  the  world.  The  primary  ports 
are  not  necessarily  those  with  the  best  harbors,  but  were 
made  such  on  account  of  the  demands  of  commerce. 

The  service  along  the  coast  is  similar  to  that  of  Peru 
except  that  the  boats  of  the  Peruvian  Steamship  Line  do 
not  go  beyond  their  own  shores,  while  there  is  additional 
service  by  Chilian  steamers.  Before  the  War  40  per  cent 
of  the  engaged  shipping  was  British.  Service  to  and  from 
Europe,  formerly  by  way  of  the  Straits,  long  ended  at 
Valparaiso,  later  extending  to  Callao,  and  for  one  or  two 
sailings  to  Panama.  The  exigencies  of  war  interfered  with 
the  execution  of  plans  which  are  now  being  carried  out  or 
modified.  European  express  service  below  Panama  is  likely 
to  be  confined  to  the  ports  of  Callao,  Mollendo,  Arica, 
Iquique,  Antofagasta,  Valparaiso,  and  Punta  Arenas,  with 
a  possible  call  for  coal  at  Coronel.  Other  express  service 
may  include  Coquimbo  and  Talcahuano.  Aside  from  the 
leading  coastal  lines  a  few  companies  operate  smaller  ships 
locally;  on  the  sea,  and  843  miles  on  the  several  navigable 
rivers  at  the  south.  There  is  also  service  among  the  south- 
ern islands  and  to  Juan  Fernandez,  400  miles  to  the  west. 

261 


262  THE  WEST  COAST 

Valparaiso,  as  the  most  important  Pacific  port  south  of 
Panama,  deserves  especial  attention.  This  rapidly  growing 
city,  population  about  200,000,  to  one  coming  from  the  north 
seems  quite  European,  with  an  atmosphere  more  crisp  and 
businesslike  than  that  of  courtly  Lima  or  picturesque  La 
Paz.  The  semicircular  bay  is  called  a  good  harbor  except 
when  the  north  winds  blow,  as  they  are  liable  to  do  in 
winter.  Some  years  ago  a  British  steamer  lying  at  anchor, 
in  an  unusually  strong  blow  was  sunk  with  all  on  board. 
A  breakwater  expected  to  avert  such  danger,  has  for  some 
time  been  in  construction ;  but  the  depth  of  water  off  shore 
has  made  the  work  difficult.  Freight  was  formerly  dis- 
charged into  lighters  and  people  into  rowboats,  the  steamers 
anchoring  at  some  distance  from  shore.  Now,  however,  a 
fiscal  mole  100  feet  long,  one  half  with  a  depth  of  water  of 
43  feet,  the  rest  of  36  feet,  provides  all  facilities.  Valparaiso 
has  fair  hotels,  providing  insufficient  accommodation  foi 
the  rapidly  increasing  travel  and  business.  In  many  respects 
the  city  is  quite  up  to  date,  but  unhappily  here  and  in  San- 
tiago Americans  in  winter  suffer  more  with  the  cold  when 
sitting  indoors  than  in  La  Paz  and  Lima,  though  for  walk- 
ing outside  it  is  comfortable  enough  with  the  temperature 
near  freezing.  As  a  rule  dwelling  houses  have  no  heating 
apparatus,  no  stoves,  but  in  some  hotel  dining  rooms  electric 
heaters  are  employed,  and  oil  stoves  may  be  provided  for 
Americans  in  their  rooms.  While  Chile  has  coal  mines, 
their  production  is  insufficient  for  the  use  of  shipping  and 
of  their  varied  industries,  and  the  people  are  not  accustomed 
to  use  either  the  native  or  the  imported  article  for  heating 
purposes. 

The  business  section  of  Valparaiso  is  on  a  narrow  strip 
of  shore  between  the  bay  and  the  amphitheatre  of  hills,  the 
level  sector  varying  in  width  from  two  blocks  to  half  a  mile. 
Climbing  up  the  slopes  and  crowning  the  hill  tops  is  most 
of  the  residential  district.  The  business  section,  largely 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1906,  has  been  rebuilt  in  a 


CHILE  263 

more  substantial  manner,  and  it  well  compares  with  other 
cities  of  its  size.  Ascensors  run  by  cable  on  inclined 
planes  are  in  general  use  for  the  ascent  of  the  bluffs,  though 
paths  and  a  few  carriage  roads  wind  steeply  upward  in  the 
canons  here  and  there  separating  the  hills,  some  of  which 
rise  to  a  height  of  looo  feet.  The  suburb  of  Vina  del  Mar, 
population  34,000,  a  fashionable  summer  resort  with  a  fine 
beach  and  club  house,  distant  a  half  hour  by  rail,  is  much 
frequented  by  the  foreign  devotees  of  golf,  tennis,  and  other 
athletic  sports. 

Other  Ports.  Of  the  other  principal  ports  we  have 
observed  that  Arica  is  the  terminus  of  the  Arica-La  Paz 
Railway,  that  Iquique  is  important  for  nitrates,  Anto- 
fagasta  for  nitrates,  copper,  and  as  the  medium  of  commerce 
with  Bolivia  by  the  old  railway  to  Oruro  and  now  to  La 
Paz ;  Coquimbo  as  the  port  of  a  province  with  both  mineral 
and  agricultural  wealth.  Below  Valparaiso  are  better 
harbors.  Concepcion,  the  largest  city  south  of  Santiago, 
350  miles  distant,  is  spoken  of  as  the  outlet  of  the  rich 
Province  of  that  name,  but  being  12  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Bio-Bio  River  it  is  not  a  real  seaport  and  is  served 
by  Talcahuano,  9  miles  away,  which  has  one  of  the  best 
harbors  on  the  coast.  For  this  reason,  though  a  much 
smaller  city,  population  24,000,  it  was  selected  as  a  military 
port  and  for  the  Government  dry  docks.  A  little  farther 
south  on  Arauco  Bay  are  Coronel  and  Lota,  both  important 
coaling  stations,  at  one  of  which  all  steamers  call ;  Lota, 
the  larger  city,  has  all  conveniences  for  shipping.  At  the 
tip  of  the  mainland  in  the  Straits  is  Punta  Arenas,  not 
visited  by  the  regular  coasting  steamers,  but  a  port  where 
every  passing  ship  is  likely  to  make  a  brief  call. 

RAILWAYS 

While  the  Chilians  have  always  cultivated  a  taste  for 
the  sea,  for  strategical  more  than  commercial  reasons  rail- 


264  THE  WEST  COAST 

way  construction  has  of  late  been  strongly  favored.  In 
this  medium  of  traffic  Chile  in  proportion  to  her  area  is 
far  ahead  of  the  other  West  Coast  countries.  It  is  true 
that  the  difficulties  of  topography  are  less.  The  oldest 
existing  line  in  Latin  America  was  here  constructed  in  1849 
by  a  Bostonian,  William  Wheelright,  who  later  founded  the 
Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  the  earliest  giving 
regular  steamship  service  to  Europe  from  the  West  Coast. 
This  first  railway  line  was  from  the  port  Caldera  to  the 
mining  town  Copiapo.  The  line  from  Valparaiso  to  San- 
tiago, also  constructed  by  Americans,  was  finished  in  1863. 
Government  ownership  is  popular  in  Chile,  and  of  the  8000 
miles  of  road  in  operation  the  State  owns  over  5000,  with 
considerable  extensions  planned.  Unfortunately  six  dif- 
ferent gauges  have  been  used,  varying  from  2  feet  6  inches 
on  the  Antofagasta  Bolivia  Line  to  5  feet  6  inches  on  the 
Central  Railway. 

The  Central  Railway.  This  is  a  Government  Line  con- 
necting Valparaiso  with  the  capital  Santiago,  express  trains 
with  American  parlor  cars  making  the  run  of  117  miles  in 
four  hours.  The  road  is  now  to  be  electrified.  South  along 
the  rich  Central  Valley,  the  same  Railway  runs  through 
sleeping  cars  to  Valdivia  and  to  Puerto  Montt,  the  latter 
city  750  miles  from  Santiago.  This  section  is  well  wortb 
a  visit,  whether  from  a  scenic  or  a  business  point  of  view. 
A  bridge  1400  feet  long  and  300  above  the  bed  of  the  Mal- 
leco  River  cost  over  $1,000,000. 

There  are  many  branches  from  the  main  line,  some  of 
these  privately  owned;  most  of  them  to  coast  ports,  a  few 
towards  the  Cordillera.  Valdivia  is  the  most  southern 
ocean  port  to  which  a  branch  extends.  Farther  north,  the 
third  city  of  Chile,  Concepcion,  is  favored,  and  Talcahuano 
near  by.  From  Concepcion  a  coast  road  leads  south  to 
Lota,  Coronel,  and  beyond.  From  Talca  a  line  goes  to 
Constitucion,  of  some  importance  for  agriculture,  shipyards, 
and  gold  mining.  Another  branch  goes  to  the  port  Pichi- 


CHILE  265 

lemu ;  from  Santiago  one  extends  72  miles  to  the  port  San 
Antonio,  nearer  the  capital  than  is  Valparaiso  but  a  second- 
ary port  to  be  improved  by  the  building  of  docks.  The 
Central  Railway  obviously  forms  a  very  important  part  of 
the  real  longitudinal  railway,  but  the  section  which  has  the 
name  Longitudinal  begins  farther  north. 

The  South  Longitudinal.  From  Calera  on  the  Valpa- 
raiso-Santiago Railway  a  branch  leads  45  miles  to  Cabildo, 
where  begins  the  Longitudinal  proper.  This  because  of  con- 
struction difficulties  is  of  narrow  gauge,  one  metre.  On  account 
of  poor  equipment  and  service,  and  the  competition  of 
steamship  lines  along  the  coast,  its  traffic  is  at  present 
small ;  but  with  better  facilities  and  increase  of  population 
it  will  be  of  much  value.  At  last  accounts  there  was  weekly 
service  to  Antofagasta  with  two  changes  of  cars,  not  count- 
ing the  one  from  Valparaiso  or  Santiago  in  order  to  reach 
Cabildo.  Here,  three  hours  from  Santiago,  the  South 
Longitudinal  is  taken  to  the  city  of  Copiapo ;  for  the  Longi- 
tudinal has  two  sections.  The  ride  is  through  a  fairly  pleasant 
country  with  varied  scenery,  the  region  being  partly  agricul- 
tural and  partly  mineral.  In  this  section  are  heavy  grades, 
rising  to  6  per  cent,  requiring  28  miles  of  the  rack  system. 
Branches  or  other  connecting  lines  here  and  there  reach  the 
sea.  The  road  passes  through  the  important  port  Coquimbo, 
and  the  adjoining  Serena,  at  which  point,  200  miles  from 
Valparaiso,  the  desert  land  begins;  though  in  river  valleys 
there  is  still  some  verdure.  From  Vallenar  on  the  main 
line  a  branch  runs  31  miles  to  the  port  Huasco.  A  private 
line  from  the  port  Carrizal,  92  miles  north  of  Huasco  and 
73  south  of  Caldera,  crosses  the  Longitudinal.  At  Copiapo 
we  come  to  the  old  line  from  Caldera,  a  fairly  good  port, 
shipping  copper  and  doing  considerable  other  business, 
though  not  a  port  of  the  first  class.  A  branch  in  the  other 
direction  extends  to  San  Antonio. 

The  North  Longitudinal.  At  Copiapo  we  change  to  the 
North  Longitudinal  from  which  there  is  a  branch  to  Chafia- 


266  THE  WEST  COAST 

ral,  about  50  miles  north  of  Caldera,  on  a  large  but  exposed 
bay  in  one  of  the  richest  mineral  districts  of  Atacama,  with 
large  smelting  works,  and  exporting  gold,  silver,  and  cop- 
per. A  private  (British)  railway  system  of  184  miles,  cross- 
ing the  Longitudinal,  serves  a  nitrate  district  and  the  port 
of  Taltal,  loo  miles  south  of  Antofagasta;  a  primary  port 
on  a  well  protected  bay,  with  piers  fitted  with  steam  cranes, 
a  centre  of  the  nitrate  and  copper  industries.  Taltal  is  a 
modern  town  with  important  business  houses.  Besides 
gold,  silver,  and  copper,  the  Province  has  some  undeveloped 
nitrate  land. 

Farther  on  at  Aguas  Blancas,  a  railway  belonging  to 
the  Bolivia-Antofagasta  Company  runs  to  Caleta  Coloso, 
a  port  six  miles  south  of  Antofagasta  and  connected  by  rail 
with  that  city  as  well  as  with  various  nitrate  properties. 
Farther  still  the  Longitudinal  crosses  the  Antofagasta- 
Bolivia  Railway  at  Baquedano,  where  some  traffic  is  ex- 
changed. It  is  the  intention  of  the  Government  to  con- 
struct its  own  line  to  Antofagasta  and  to  the  port  of 
Mejillones  some  miles  north.  Beyond  this  crossing,  from 
Toco  on  the  Longitudinal,  the  Anglo-Chilian  Nitrate  and 
Railway  Company's  Line  branches  to  the  port  of  Tocopilla. 
At  last  Pintados,  the  one  time  terminus  is  reached,  where 
connection  is  made  with  the  Nitrate  Railways,  which  go 
on  to  Iquique  and  Pisagua.  But  in  spite  of  this  the  Gov- 
ernment Line  is  now  being  prolonged  to  the  former  city. 
It  is  intended  ultimately  to  extend  the  main  line  to  Arica, 
175  miles  farther,  a  section  likely  to  be  unprofitable  com- 
mercially but  desired  for  other  reasons.  From  Arica  there 
is  a  railway  to  Tacna,  near  the  Peruvian  border,  hence  on 
completion  of  this  section  there  would  be  through  rail  ser- 
vice from  near  the  northern  border  to  Puerto  Montt  in  the 
far  south,  a  primary  port  on  the  Gulf  of  Reloncavi.  The 
length  of  the  road  from  Puerto  Montt  to  Jazpampa  the 
present  terminus,  east  of  Pisagua,  is  1902  miles ;  to  Tarata, 


CHILE  267 

the  most  northern  town  in  the  mountains,  the  distance  is 
207  miles  more. 

The  Antofagasta-Bolivia  Railway.  The  Bolivian  section 
of  the  important  Antofagasta  Railway  has  already  been 
referred  to.  That  in  Chile  deserves  further  consideration. 
British  owned,  like  most  of  the  Chilian  railways  not  belong- 
ing to  the  State,  it  is  the  longest  and  most  important  of 
these.  Although  uncommonly  narrow  with  a  2  foot  6  inch 
gauge,  the  sleeping  cars  are  more  comfortable  than  some 
with  double  the  width.  The  road  operates  835  miles  of  main 
track  to  La  Paz,  518  of  these  in  Chile.  There  is  semi- 
weekly  service  to  La  Paz  in  practically  two  days,  besides 
local  trains.  One  thousand,  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  of 
track  are  controlled  by  the  Company.  The  climb  begins  at 
once,  the  road  in  18  miles  getting  1800  feet  above  the  sea. 
At  km.  36  a  branch  70  miles  long  goes  to  the  Boquete 
Nitrate  Fields,  altitude  5622  feet.  At  Prat,  km.  59,  a  branch 
goes  down  to  Mejillones,  a  new  port  opened  by  the  Com- 
pany in  1906,  called  the  finest  harbor  on  the  coast,  capable 
of  holding  the  fleets  of  the  world  (it  was  said  when  these 
were  smaller)  and  so  protected  that  shipping  suffers  no 
inconvenience  from  bad  weather.  Tocopilla,  37  miles  north 
of  Antofagasta,  has  direct  rail  connection  with  that  city 
by  a  line  43  miles  long.  The  main  Antofagasta  line,  cross- 
ing the  Longitudinal  at  km.  96,  at  km.  116  enters  the 
principal  nitrate  district  of  this  region  and  leaves  it  35 
miles  beyond.  In  this  section  are  24  oficinas,  as  the  nitrate 
plants  are  called,  some  of  them  models  of  their  kind. 

Going  in  either  direction  this  part  is  traversed  at  night ; 
otherwise  one  might  be  refreshed  by  the  sight  of  a  little 
green  at  Calama,  149  miles  from  Antofagasta,  at  six  A.M. 
This  was  a  copper  mining  centre  in  Inca  days  and  a  smelter 
is  here  now.  At  this  altitude  some  persons  stop  a  day,  a 
good  plan  if  one  is  not  sure  of  his  heart;  though  oxygen 
is  now  carried  for  use  in  emergency.  At  km.  254  is  a  short 
branch,  6  miles,  to  Chuquicamata,  to  be  referred  to  later. 


268  THE  WEST  COAST 

Just  beyond  the  Conchi  station  is  a  graceful  viaduct  with 
six  lattice  girder  spans  of  80  feet  each,  supported  on  steel 
trestle  towers.  This,  called  the  highest  viaduct  in  the  world, 
is  336  feet  above  the  water  of  the  Rio  Loa,  at  an  altitude 
of  nearly  10,000  feet.  Here  a  branch  line  runs  to  the  copper 
mines  of  Conchi  Viejo.  At  San  Pedro  station,  195  miles, 
at  10,600  feet  altitude,  are  reservoirs  blasted  from  the  solid 
rock,  on  which  the  Company  spent  $6,000,000  to  supply 
Antofagasta,  the  nitrate  fields,  and  the  railway  with  water. 
The  water  comes  from  three  different  places,  one  of  them 
37  miles  northeast  and  14,500  feet  above  the  sea:  this 
source  capable  of  supplying  6000  tons  of  water  daily  through 
1 1 -inch  pipes. 

The  road  now  passes  two  snow  capped  volcanoes,  from 
one  of  which  smoke  may  be  rising,  and  crosses  a  stream  of 
lava  one-third  of  a  mile  wide  and  several  miles  long,  to  the 
summit  of  the  main  line,  13,000  feet.  Soon  after,  a  borax 
lake  belonging  to  a  British  company  may  be  seen;  24  miles 
long,  it  is  the  largest  single  deposit  in  the  world  and  the 
chief  source  of  the  world's  supply.  At  Ollague,  where  snow 
storms  occasionally  impede  traffic,  is  a  branch  to  the  rich 
copper  mines  at  Collahuasi.  The  Bolivian  frontier  is  soon 
afterward  crossed,  and  at  Uyuni  a  change  is  made  to  the 
broader  gauge  line  to  La  Paz. 

The  Trans-Andine  Railway.  Of  all  the  railroads  of 
Chile,  the  Trans-Andine  is  naturally  the  most  famous,  as  a 
part  of  the  only  trans-continental  railway  south  of  Panama ; 
but  financially,  as  yet  it  is  hardly  a  success.  With  post- 
war increase  of  traffic,  there  will  doubtless  be  an  improve- 
ment. The  Trans-Andine  section  of  metre  gauge  begins  at 
Los  Andes,  altitude  2723  feet,  88  miles  from  Valparaiso. 
A  change  is  here  made  from  the  State  Line,  5.5-foot  gauge. 
It  is  a  distance  of  43  miles  to  the  tunnel,  a  steep  climb  up 
the  Aconcagua  River  Valley,  with  a  maximum  grade  of 
8  per  cent;  20  miles  of  rack  railway  are  employed.  There 
are  25  tunnels,  and  on  the  Aconcagua  River  or  its  branches, 


CHILE  269 

118  bridges.  The  scenery  is  wild  and  the  journey  delight- 
ful. Sheds  have  been  erected  against  snow  and  land  slides. 
Up  to  1916  the  road  was  closed  for  several  months  each 
winter;  but  with  an  increase  of  sheds  and  with  a  force  of 
men  continually  digging,  the  road  was  kept  open  through 
the  years  1916,  '17  and  '18;  it  was  seriously  blocked  in 
July,  1919.  While  previously  passenger  traffic  was  the  more 
remunerative,  in  1916  unusual  efforts  were  made  for  the 
benefit  of  important  freight  which  it  was  impossible  to  ship 
by  sea. 

The  tunnel  is  at  a  height  of  10,486  feet,  its  length  is 
10,385  feet,  each  practically  two  miles.  The  boundary  line 
is  near  the  middle,  each  country  building  to  that  point ;  but 
the  whole  is  operated  as  one  line  from  Los  Andes  to  Men- 
doza.  The  line  was  opened  in  the  Centennial  year,  April 
16,  1910,  in  time  for  the  Exposition  at  Buenos  Aires.  The 
cost  of  the  Chilian  section  was  about  $15,000,000.  Opera- 
tion is  at  a  loss,  interest  being  paid  by  the  Government. 
The  capitalization  is  $317,000  a  mile.  Fifteen  Trans-Andine 
projects  have  been  put  forward,  most  of  them  for  the  south, 
one  from  near  Puerto  Montt.  One  in  construction  is  from 
Talcahuano  to  Bahia  Blanca  by  way  of  Temuco.  A  road 
from  Punta  Arenas  to  the  Loreto  coal  fields  is  the  most 
southern  railway  in  the  world,  as  that  is  the  most  southern 
city.  The  early  construction  is  expected  of  an  important 
road  at  the  north  from  Salta  in  Argentina  by  Huaytiquina 
on  the  border  to  Antofagasta.  Of  wagon  roads  there  are 
said  to  be  20,000  miles. 

The  Arica-La  Paz  Railway  is  described  on  page  222. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
CHILE:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

Although  Chile  is  often  compared  to  California,  to  which 
State  it  has  some  but  not  a  close  resemblance  in  length, 
partial  dryness,  earthquakes,  and  fruit,  the  specialty  of 
Chile  is  not  shared  by  California.  Chile  and  nitrates  are 
almost  synonymous  terms.  A  thought  of  one  suggests  the 
other.  The  greater  part  of  the  nitrate  country  earlier  be- 
longed to  Peru,  some  also  to  Bolivia;  and  both  countries  still 
bewail  their  loss. 

MINING 

The  Nitrate  Fields  we  know  are  in  the  north,  chiefly 
in  the  Provinces  of  Tarapaca,  Antofagasta,  and  Atacama. 
If  this  desert  land  does  not  blossom  as  the  rose,  it  produces 
the  wherewithal  to  make  other  fields  blossom,  and  the 
wealth  to  purchase  the  roses.  The  richest  deposits  are 
mainly  along  a  stretch  of  300  miles  from  Pisagua  in  Tara- 
paca, to  Coquimbo.  With  an  average  width  of  2.^/2.  miles, 
the  fields  are  at  a  distance  of  from  10  to  80  miles  back  from 
the  coast,  and  at  a  height  of  2000-5000  feet.  The  deposits, 
which  are  not  in  continuous  fields,  are  sometimes  on  the 
surface,  but  oftener  overlaid  with  strata  of  earth  several 
feet  thick.  The  raw  material  called  caliche  contains  from 
20  to  65  per  cent  nitrate  of  soda.  After  pickling  in  tanks 
8-12  hours,  the  liquid,  caldo,  is  run  off,  the  sand  and  refuse 
dropping  to  the  bottom.  When  ready  for  export  the  article 
carries  15-16  per  cent  nitrogen  and  36  per  cent  sodium. 
Commercial  nitrate  is  a  white  cheese-like  substance,  which 

270 


CHILE  271 

is  used  in  manufacturing  the  highest  grade  of  gunpowder, 
also  to  produce  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid;  but  the  bulk  of 
it  in  ordinary  times  is  employed  as  a  fertilizer,  doubling 
and  tripling  the  harvest.  Within  recent  years  the  demand 
and  in  consequence  the  production  has  greatly  varied,  the 
partial  recovery  in  1920  being  soon  followed  by  a  depression. 

A  by-product  is  a  yellow  liquid,  which  being  chemically 
treated  leaves  a  blue  crystal,  iodine,  which  costs  as  much 
an  ounce  as  saltpetre  per  100  pounds.  Being  worth  $700- 
$800  a  cask  it  is  shipped  in  treasure  vaults  with  bullion. 
The  nitrate  establishments  called  oficinas  provide  good  salaries, 
and  the  best  possible  quarters  for  their  officials,  and  they  are 
interesting  to  visit.  As  a  mineral,  the  nitrate  is  distinguished 
from  guano  although  believed  by  some  to  have  the  same  origin. 
British  companies  have  long  been  engaged  in  this  industry. 
American  interests  have  more  recently  acquired  holdings.  The 
Du  Fonts  have  three  properties  covering  14,000  acres. 

The  chief  ports  of  this  region  are  Iquique  and  Anto- 
fagasta,  Pisagua  being  a  smaller  port  visited  only  by  the 
caletero  or  the  strictly  freight  boats.  Iquique  is  a  more  agree- 
able city  than  in  former  days,  when  water  was  sometimes  $2 
a  gallon,  and  people  drank  champagne,  they  said,  because 
water  was  too  expensive.  Now  the  dust  of  the  streets  is  laid 
by  sprinklers,  some  people  have  bath  rooms,  a  few  even  foun- 
tains in  patios.  Antofagasta  is  also  a  desert  place,  unattrac- 
tive to  look  at,  but  with  good  shops,  business  houses,  and  fair 
hotels.  The  water  comes  a  distance  of  nearly  200  miles,  the 
source  more  than  two  miles  above  the  sea. 

Potash.  In  addition  to  nitrates  Chile  possesses  extensive 
beds  of  useful  potash  one  of  which  is  estimated  to  contain 
nearly  7,000,000  tons  easy  of  exploitation. 

Copper.  The  property  of  the  Chile  Copper  Company 
(one  of  the  Guggenheim  interests)  at  Chuquicamata  is 
said  to  be  the  largest  copper  deposit  known  in  the  world. 
About  2000  of  the  9600  acres  of  the  claim  are  mineralized. 
The  outcrop  of  copper  is  one  and  a  half  miles  in  length. 


272  THE  WEST  COAST 

It  has  been  proved  below  to  a  width  of  1800  feet  and  a 
length  of  7500  feet.  Ten  of  the  2080  shafts  are  over  1000 
feet  in  depth,  and  at  1500  feet  the  ore  is  of  commercial 
value.  Over  700,000,000  tons  of  positive  and  probable  ore 
have  been  developed,  carrying  an  average  value  of  2.12  per 
cent  copper.  The  reduction  plant  has  a  capacity  of  15,000 
tons  a  day,  the  refinery  of  180,000,000  pounds  a  year.  With 
a  90  per  cent  extraction  the  yield  is  96  pounds  of  copper 
per  ton.  At  the  port  of  Tocopilla,  north  of  Antofagasta, 
the  Company  has  a  power  station  where  oil  from  Cali- 
fornia is  used  to  generate  a  power  of  24,000-27,000  kilowatts 
needed  at  Chuquicamata.  This  is  transported  by  wire 
across  country  a  distance  of  100  miles.  At  normal  prices 
the  cost  of  copper  production  with  delivery  in  New  York 
or  Europe  is  $121  a  ton,  or  about  6  cents  a  pound;  higher 
with  war  time  conditions  which  still  obtain  (1921).  From 
the  15,000  ton  plant  in  full  service  175,000,000  pounds  of 
copper  would  be  produced  annually.  In  1920,  55,617,000 
pounds  were  produced,  the  largest  amount  from  any  mine 
in  Chile.  In  1916  important  mines  belonging  to  the  Calama 
Mining  Company  were  added  to  the  Chile  Company's  hold- 
ings. 

The  Braden  Copper  Company,  another  Guggenheim 
interest,  owns  about  2300  acres  in  the  Province  of  O'Hig- 
gins.  They  have  a  concentrator,  a  smelting  and  converting 
plant,  a  hydro-electric  power  plant  with  800  kilowatt 
capacity  and  an  electric  and  a  steam  railway;  the  latter, 
43  miles  long,  connecting  the  property  with  Rancagua, 
which  is  on  the  Central  Railway  43  miles  southeast  of  San- 
tiago. The  ore  is  of  concentrating  copper,  a  sulphide  in 
brecciated  andesite,  around  an  extinct  volcano.  It  runs 
about  2.5  per  cent,  with  an  earlier  production  cost  in  New 
York  of  6.5  cents  a  pound,  but  now  higher.  In  1916,  1500- 
1800  men  were  employed.  The  plant,  recently  enlarged, 
is  not  working  to  capacity.  In  1917,  64,000,000  pounds  were 


CHILE  273 

produced,  over  77,000,000  in  1918,  with  diminishing  demand, 
40,000,000  in  1920. 

Another  American  syndicate  has  acquired  the  Tamaya 
Copper  Mines  in  the  Province  of  Coquimbo  between  Ovalle 
and  Tongoy,  the  latter,  a  minor  port  27  miles  south  of 
Coquimbo,  sheltered  from  north  winds,  with  smelting  works 
in  the  place.  With  an  efficient  pumping  plant  and  other 
improvements  installed,  the  mines  are  expected  to  yield 
large  production.  Other  companies,  native,  British,  and 
French  are  engaged  in  copper  mining  at  Carrizal  and  else- 
where. 

Iron.  Coquimbo,  a  Province  with  local  importance  for 
agriculture,  is  notable  for  its  deposits  of  iron  ore,  said  to 
amount  to  a  billion  tons.  Only  one  of  these  has  been 
worked,  a  deposit  located  at  Tofo,  about  four  miles  east  of 
Cruz  Grande,  and  30  north  of  the  city  of  Coquimbo.  This 
property  was  leased  in  1913  by  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Com- 
pany from  a  French  Company  which  had  developed  the 
mine  to  some  extent  and  produced  ore.  The  ore  appearing 
as  the  top  of  a  large  hill  will  be  mined  by  electric  shovels 
and  transported  by  an  electric  railway  to  docks  at  Cruz 
Grande.  The  amount  of  ore  is  very  large  though  with 
exact  tonnage  undetermined.  The  Company  is  still  explor- 
ing the  deposit  at  depth. 

The  mines  and  railway  are  completely  equipped.  At 
Cruz  Grande  a  basin  dock  has  been  constructed  with  large 
storage  pockets  into  which  the  ore  will  be  discharged  from 
the  railway  cars,  and  from  which  it  will  go  directly  into 
the  vessels.  The  Steel  Company  is  constructing  steamers 
of  20,000  tons  to  carry  the  ore  to  the  United  States  for  use 
in  their  furnaces.  The  ore  is  very  pure  averaging  about 
67.50  per  cent  iron.  It  is  a  dense  ore  reddish  black  in  color, 
a  mixture  of  magnetite  and  hematite. 

The  French  Company  formerly  controlling  Tofo  had 
erected  a  steel  plant  at  Corral  intending  to  transport  the 


274  THE  WEST  COAST 

ore  thither.  There  is  no  iron  ore  near  there  and  the  plant 
is  not  operating. 

Of  the  other  deposits  in  Coquimbo  and  farther  north 
some  are  of  considerable  size,  but  none  is  located  so  near 
the  coast  as  Tofo  and  none  has  been  developed. 

Other  metals  existing  in  Chile  are  at  present  of  less 
importance  and  slight  operation.  A  moderate  gold  output 
accompanies  the  production  of  copper,  and  there  is  some 
placer  mining,  especially  in  the  south.  Deposits  are  known 
to  exist  in  many  Provinces  from  Tacna  to  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
Silver  too  exists,  but  its  production  is  chiefly  as  a  by- 
product. Lead,  zinc,  molybdenum,  and  tungsten  are  ex- 
ported in  limited  quantities. 

Coal,  following  nitrates,  is  of  the  first  importance  among 
ordinary  minerals,  a  source  of  large  wealth  though  the  pro- 
duction, about  1,700,000  tons  yearly,  is  insufficient  for  the 
needs  of  the  country.  Little  is  therefore  exported  and  a 
good  deal  is  normally  imported  from  Great  Britain  and 
Australia;  until  recently  a  little  only  from  the  United 
States.  Most  of  the  mines  in  operation,  owned  by  ten  com- 
panies, are  near  the  ports  of  Talcahuano,  Coronel,  and  Lota. 
The  coal  is  not  equal  in  quality  to  the  British,  but  it  has 
been  used  by  steamships,  railways,  and  mines  with  fair 
results.  Coronel  or  Lota,  five  miles  apart  on  Arauco  Bay, 
one  or  the  other,  is  a  regular  port  of  call  for  steamships. 
The  Cousino  property  at  Lota  was  purchased  in  1852  and 
later  was  conducted  by  the  son's  widow,  under  her  admini- 
stration the  greatest  financial  enterprise  carried  on  by  a 
Chilian.  At  her  death  she  was  called  the  richest  woman 
in  the  world,  leaving  a  property  of  $70,000,000.  The  capital 
of  the  company  is  $20,000,000.  The  mines  are  one-fourth  of 
a  mile  deep  and  extend  under  the  sea,  where  there  is  good 
rock  and  no  drip.  Here  are  streets,  restaurants,  offices, 
stalls  for  horses,  blacksmith  shops,  etc. 

A  British  Company,  the  Arauco,  in  addition  to  coal 
properties  operates  its  own  railway  with  62  miles  of  main 


CHILE  275 

line  and  branches,  besides  mining  spurs.  It  has  four  daily 
trains  from  Concepcion  to  Lota,  Coronel,  and  beyond,  pass- 
ing over  the  Bio-Bio  River  by  a  bridge  of  i%  miles,  the 
longest  in  South  America.  Of  coal  about  V/z  million  tons 
are  produced  and  as  much  more  is  imported. 

Petroleum  is  believed  by  Chilians  to  exist  in  large  quan- 
tities, but  the  present  development  is  infantile.  It  has  been 
found  in  southern  Chile,  on  the  Island  of  Chiloe  and  in  the 
Patagonas  district,  as  well  as  in  the  north  near  the  Bolivian 
frontier.  Large  quantities  are  imported  principally  from 
Peru,  normally  about  400,000  tons  a  year.  Oil  recently 
found  in  the  Magallanes  Territory  is  stated  by  experts  to 
be  equal  in  quality  to  that  found  in  Argentina.  The  extent 
of  the  deposits  seems  to  rival  that  of  the  famous  fields  of 
Comodoro  Rivadavia.  Legislation  to  regulate  the  well 
drilling  is  proposed  to  prevent  inundation  of  deposits  by 
subterranean  streams,  to  restrict  the  ownership  to  native 
Chilians  or  foreigners  with  Chilian  families,  and  to  secure 
to  the  Government  a  10  per  cent  royalty.  A  strong  flow 
of  petroleum  of  great  purity  from  a  well  about  300  feet 
deep  has  recently  been  reported  from  Chiloe. 

Sulphur  comes  from  a  largely  producing  mine  at  the  fool 
of  Mt.  Ollague,  and  from  one  of  growing  importance  at 
Tacora  on  the  Arica-La  Paz  Railway.  The  deposits  of 
Tacora  are  believed  to  contain  10  to  45  million  tons  of 
sulphur.  In  1915  about  10,000  tons  were  produced  in  Chile. 

Salt.  From  various  salt  deposits,  the  salinas  of  Punta 
de  Lobos  and  several  mountain  lagoons,  about  $300,000 
worth  of  salt  was  produced,  supplying  the  domestic  market. 

Borax  is  important,  Chile  furnishing  about  half  of  the 
world  supply. 

AGRICULTURE 

Of  large  importance  and  value  are  the  agricultural  inter- 
ests including  fruit,  although  the  imports  of  such  products 


276  THE  WEST  COAST 

are  nearly  double  the  exports  in  value.  About  one  eighth 
of  the  area  of  Chile  consists  of  arable  land.  The  production 
should  be  greatly  increased.  Twenty  million  acres  are  still 
available,  and  with  better  methods  excellent  results  might 
be  secured.  In  1914-15  about  25,000,000  bushels  of  wheat 
were  raised,  half  as  many  potatoes,  and  more  than  half  as 
much  hay ;  besides  barley,  oats,  beans,  corn,  etc.  Consider- 
able wheat  is  exported  with  some  barley,  oats,  rye,  and 
legumes.  Of  15,000,000  acres  suitable  for  wheat,  only  one 
fifth  is  in  cultivation.  It  grows  well  from  Aconcagua  to 
Cautin  inclusive,  but  farther  south  the  crops  are  uncertain. 
They  average  15-20  bushels  an  acre.  Six  hundred  thousand 
acres  are  devoted  to  alfalfa,  which  in  favorable  places  gives 
three  crops  a  year  and  has  roots  ten  feet  long,  a  distinctive 
variety  being  formed  here.  In  irrigated  valleys  from 
Coquimbo  north,  corn  gives  two  fine  crops  annually.  Pota- 
toes flourish  from  Concepcion  south,  in  Chiloe  yielding  250- 
350  bushels  to  the  acre.  Flax  and  sugar  beets  might  be 
raised.  Some  agricultural  machines  are  now  employed,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  30,000. 

Fruit.  Delicious  fruits  of  all  temperate  zone  varieties 
and  some  of  the  subtropical  are  raised,  chiefly  for  home  con- 
sumption, but  with  export  possibilities.  Drying  and  canning 
of  these  is  practised  to  some  extent,  but  might  be  done  on 
a  much  larger  and  more  profitable  scale.  Excellent  table 
grapes  are  raised;  many  vineyards  devote  their  product  to 
wine  making,  the  industry  being  especially  developed  in 
the  Provinces  of  Santiago,  O'Higgins,  and  Colchagua.  In 
the  north,  wine  is  made  of  the  port  and  sherry  classes;  in 
the  central  section  light  wines  of  excellent  quality,  some  of 
which  are  exported  to  the  neighboring  countries.  More  wine 
however  is  imported  of  expensive  varieties.  The  vineyards 
are  in  general  owned  by  natives,  and  according  to  location 
are  worth  $2OO-$iooo  an  acre.  Raisins  are  produced  in 
quantity. 


CHILE  277 

FORESTRY 

This  might  become  a  more  impartant  industry,  though 
now  practised  to  a  considerable  extent.  It  has  been  cus- 
tomary to  burn  a  section  of  forest  at  the  close  of  summer, 
February,  to  get  rid  of  the  underbrush,  and  later  to  cut 
down  the  trees,  which  must  have  suffered  some  injury.  The 
forest  area  is  below  the  Bio-Bio  River.  On  a  tract  of  100 
square  miles  extending  from  near  Valdivia  north  to  Temuco, 
the  timber  averages  about  9000  feet  to  the  acre.  Farther 
south  the  woods  are  denser,  as  on  the  Island  of  Chiloe. 
The  greatest  extent  of  forest  is  in  Valdivia,  the  next  in 
Llanquihue  and  in  Chiloe.  On  this  Island  a  60  mile  railway 
was  constructed  by  the  Government  from  Ancud  at  the 
northwest  to  Castro  south,  on  the  east  side,  making  a  part 
of  the  forest  accessible.  Oak,  Chilian  mahogany,  laurel, 
ash,  pine,  and  other  hard  and  soft  woods  are  available. 
There  are  in  Chile  3000  saw-mills  and  some  pulp  and  shingle 
mills.  The  first  and  second  grades  of  wood,  used  for  floors 
and  finished  boards,  bring  $i2-$i8  per  1000  feet,  ash  $25; 
the  third  grade  is  worth  $8.  Shingles  are  $3  per  thousand. 
From  the  forests  comes  the  quillay  bark  with  a  soapy  sub- 
stance for  cleaning  silk  and  fine  linen,  of  which  $200,000 
worth  is  annually  exported  to  France,  after  being  prepared 
by  two  Chilian  factories.  Tannin,  of  which  15,000  tons  are 
annually  used,  is  derived  from  bark  of  several  kinds.  With 
additional  railways  planned  and  Government  data  furnished, 
there  is  opportunity  for  good  investments  with  moderate 
capital. 

STOCK  RAISING 

Stock  raising  of  various  kinds  is  carried  on  quite  exten- 
sively by  some  large  companies  under  British,  German,  or 
Chilian  Control,  often  paying  20  per  cent  dividends.  Sheep 
are  in  the  lead,  numbering  probably  6,000,000,  cattle  3,000,000, 


278  THE  WEST  COAST 

horses  725,000,  half  as  many  goats,  a  third  as  many  pigs, 
fewer  donkeys,  mules,  alpacas,  and  llamas.  The  horses  are 
good,  larger  than  those  in  Peru,  and  noted  for  their  excellent 
trotting,  some  making  this  as  easy  as  a  good  pace  or  canter. 
In  1916,  20,000,000  pounds  of  wool  were  produced,  half  of 
this  in  Magallanes  Territory  not  far  from  Punta  Arenas,  where 
there  are  more  than  3,000,000  sheep.  The  meat  is  of  the  finest 
quality;  the  farther  south  the  better  the  wool  in  thickness  and 
length  of  staple. 

The  cattle  are  improving  with  the  introduction  of  Short- 
horns and  Herefords;  there  is  some  export,  especially  to 
Bolivia.  The  3,000,000  at  present  might  be  increased  ten  fold. 
A  British  company  is  constructing  a  frigorifico  at  Puerto 
Montt.  The  dairy  industry  is  important,  with  good  cheese, 
bottled  milk,  and  some  condensed.  Goats  are  numerous  in 
the  mountains.  Apiculture  is  practised  and  fine  honey  is  made. 
Fisheries  are  of  great  importance  and  value,  at  Juan  Fernandez, 
as  also  along  the  coast. 

MANUFACTURING 

Such  industries  are  more  developed  in  Chile  than  in  any 
of  the  countries  previously  considered.  The  6200  manufac- 
tories with  80,000  operatives  and  an  investment  of  $250,000,000 
show  great  diversity.  There  are  saw  mills,  flour  mills,  brew- 
eries, sugar  refineries,  some  coarse  sugar  being  imported  from 
Peru,  tanneries,  furniture,  and  shoe  factories,  with  others 
commonly  found.  A  cement  factory  pays  a  quarterly  dividend 
of  5  per  cent,  a  brewery  gave  a  semi-annual  dividend  of  15 
per  cent.  A  new  one  is  planned  for  Arica.  More  than  $12,- 
000,000  are  invested  in  the  leather  industries,  with  an  out- 
put worth  $20,000,000.  Twenty-two  or  more  shoe  factories 
are  scattered  in  various  cities.  Clothing  and  textiles  are  next 
In  value  of  production,  followed  by  $10,000,000  worth  of 
furniture  and  woodwork.  Ship  building  is  important. 


CHILE  279 

INVESTMENTS 

Activities  in  Chile  in  the  immediate  future  for  which  about 
$15,000,000  have  been  appropriated  by  the  Government  in- 
clude work  or  equipment  on  railways,  roads,  bridges,  barracks, 
waterworks,  sewer  systems,  building  construction,  and  port 
works.  These  furnish  opportunities  to  which  many  others 
may  be  added.  The  possibilities  in  agriculture,  fruit  raising 
and  canning  are  obvious;  those  in  fisheries,  saw  mills  and 
lumber,  development  of  water  power,  in  factories  of  various 
kinds  may  be  noted,  as  well  as  for  large  capitalists  in  mining. 
A  $10,000,000  contract  for  the  electrification  and  equipment 
of  four  zones  of  the  Government  railways  has  been  concluded 
with  a  combination  of  several  American  interests. 


THE  EAST  COAST 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 

ARGENTINA:  AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  ETC. 

Argentina,  from  the  south  the  first  country  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  the  second  largest  in  South  America,  has 
been  called  not  only  the  most  progressive  on  that  continent 
but  the  richest  per  capita  on  the  globe. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  Occupying  the  greater  part  of  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  continent,  Argentina  is  nearly  2300  miles 
long,  with  an  extreme  width  just  south  of  Paraguay  of  930 
miles.  Nearly  as  broad  in  the  centre,  the  country  below  the 
Province  of  Buenos  Aires  narrows  rapidly  towards  the 
south.  Extending  from  22°  to  56°  S.  Lat.,  it  has  an  area 
of  1,154,000  square  miles,  equal  to  about  one-third  of  Europe 
and  more  than  one-third  of  the  United  States:  approxi- 
mately that  of  the  part  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  with 
Texas  in  addition. 

Population.  In  1919  the  inhabitants  were  reckoned  as 
over  8,000,000.  In  1921  there  may  be  9,000,000,  at  least 
8,500,000;  more  than  seven  to  a  square  mile.  Ninety  per 
cent  of  the  population  is  found  in  40  per  cent  of  the  terri- 
tory, although  the  rest  may  be  the  richest* 

Boundary.  While  boundary  disputes  have  occurred  with 
her  neighbors  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  South  American 
countries,  all  of  Argentina's  have  been  amicably  settled  by 
arbitration  or  agreement.  Bolivia  and  Paraguay,  a  trifle  of 
Brazil  and  of  Uruguay  are  on  her  northern  border,  the  last 
three  are  on  the  east ;  a  long  stretch  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 

280 


ARGENTINA  281 

is  at  the  southeast;  at  the  south  is  a  bit  of  Chile,  which 
country  extends  along  the  entire  western  boundary. 

HISTORY 

While  a  few  settlements  were  made  in  Argentina  (the 
country  was  discovered  in  1508)  from  a  half  to  a  whole  cen- 
tury earlier  than  those  of  our  own  coast  cities,  the  country 
was  so  hampered  by  restrictions  of  immigration  and  commerce, 
exceeding  those  placed  on  the  West  Coast,  that  its  growth 
was  stifled.  After  proclaiming  independence  it  suffered  for 
years  from  internal  disorders,  but  during  the  last  half  century 
its  development  has  been  phenomenal.  In  1535,  the  same  year 
that  Pizarro  founded  Lima,  Pedro  de  Mendoza  landed  on  the 
south  shore  of  La  Plata  River  and  made  at  Buenos  Aires  the 
first  settlement  on  this  part  of  the  continent.  But  the  Indians 
of  the  East  Coast  were  more  savage  than  most  of  those  on  the 
West,  and  a  few  years  later,  after  many  colonists  had  been 
killed,  the  little  town  was  abandoned.  In  1580  it  was  re- 
established by  Juan  de  Garay,  after  a  number  of  settlements 
had  been  made  in  other  districts,  as  at  Mendoza,  Santiago, 
Tucuman,  and  Cordoba.  Previously  attached  to  the  great 
dominion  ruled  from  Peru,  in  1776  a  Viceroyalty  was  estab- 
lished at  Buenos  Aires. 

In  1806-07,  during  a  European  war,  the  city  was  attacked 
by  British  forces  which  were  ultimately  obliged  to  retreat.  By 
reason  of  this  success  the  colonists  became  more  self  reliant, 
and  May  25th,  1810,  they  formed  a  junta  of  citizens  who  took 
from  the  Viceroy  the  control  of  the  Government.  While  this 
was  done  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII,  the  date  is  regarded 
as  the  birth  of  their  independence.  July  9th,  the  date  of  the 
Proclamation  of  Independence  by  an  Argentine  Congress  in 
1816,  is  alike  celebrated.  Not  being  at  first  obliged  to  fight 
a  Spanish  army  in  Argentina,  some  of  the  colonists  under 
General  San  Martin  kindly  assisted  in  liberating  Chile  and 
later  Peru  from  the  Spanish  yoke.  Meanwhile  Congress  hav- 
ing declared  independence  had  made  Buenos  Aires  the  seat 


282  THE  EAST  COAST 

of  government.  Yet  during  civil  strife  which  for  many  years 
continued,  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires  was  at  one  time  an 
independent  State,  separated  from  the  Argentine  Federation. 
In  1861  matters  were  finally  settled  and  reunion  was  estab- 
lished. In  the  latter  part  of  that  decade  occurred  the  Para- 
guayan War,  which  was  followed  by  some  internal  diffi- 
culties; but  with  many  able  leaders,  growth  and  prosperity 
for  the  most  part  have  since  prevailed. 

GOVERNMENT 

The  Government  of  Argentina  is  that  of  a  Federal  rather 
than  a  Centralized  Republic,  although  in  fact  the  President 
has  a  preponderating  influence,  with  certain  rights  of  interven- 
tion in  the  affairs  of  any  Province.  The  constitution  following 
quite  closely  that  of  the  United  States,  there  are  the  three 
usual  branches.  The  President  of  the  Republic,  elected  for 
a  term  of  six  years,  is  not  immediately  eligible  for  reelection. 
Congress  has  a  Senate  of  30  members  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies  of  158. 

The  Provinces  have  each  a  Governor  and  a  Legislative 
Assembly  of  its  own  choosing.  The  Governors  of  Territories 
are  appointed  by  the  President.  A  Territory  has  the  privilege 
of  becoming  a  Province  when  it  has  50,000  inhabitants,  but 
for  some  reason  this  right  has  not  been  exercised.  The  Federal 
District,  the  City  of  Buenos  Aires,  is  governed  by  a  Mayor 
and  a  Council  elected  by  tax  paying  residents. 

Male  citizens  have  the  right  of  suffrage  at  the  age  of  18. 
The  passage  of  a  law,  at  the  initiative  of  President  Dr.  Roque 
Saenz  Pefia,  made  the  exercise  of  the  franchise  obligatory 
upon  all  native  born  citizens,  and  on  foreigners  after  two  years 
of  residence,  thus  inaugurating  a  great  change.  At  the  first 
election  under  the  new  law  in  1916,  Dr.  Hipolito  IrigoyCa  of 
the  Radical  Party  was  chosen  President  by  the  Electoral  Col- 
lege, the  first  person  outside  of  the  previously  governing  class 
to  be  elected. 

There  are  14  Provinces  corresponding  to  our  States,  and 
10  Territories,  besides  the  Federal  District,  Buenos  Aires.  The 


ARGENTINA 


283 


best  obtainable  figures  of  the  area  and  population  of  the 
Provinces  and  Territories  with  those  of  the  population  and 
altitude  of  their  capitals  follow.  The  Provinces  are  named 
in  order  from  the  north  across  from  west  to  east  in  four  rows, 
thus  beginning  at  the  northwest : 


PROVINCES 

AREA, 
in 
square 
miles 

POPULA- 
TION 

CAPITALS 

POPULA- 
TION 

ALTI- 
TUDES, 
infect 

DIS- 
TANCE 

FROM 

BUENOS 
AIRES, 

in  miles 

Tuiuv  .  . 

15,800 
62,160 
37,000 
10,400 

75,000 
38,000 
38,000 
67,000 
50,000 
33,000 
30,000 
55,370 
30,000 
117,800 
72 

35,ooo 
44,000 
386,000 
1  1,  880 
58,000 

42,470 
77,220 
946,000 

111,000 

8,300 

78,000 
160,000 
110,000 
350,000 

265,000 
130,000 
85,000 
750,000 
1,000,000 
400,000 
450,000 
300,000 
127,000 
2,200,000 
1,800,000 

2,600 
52,000 
65,000 
52,000 

110,000 

31,500 

42,000 
23,000 
10,000 

2,500 

Tuiuv.  . 

25,000 
40,000 
15,000 
100,000 

35,000 
20,000 
13,000 
135,000 
80,000 
40,000 
80,000 
65,000 
25,000 
135,000 
1,800,000 

1,000 
4,200 
12,000 

10,000 

5,400 
4,500 
7,500 

8,000 

3,ooo 
i,  600 

3,675 
5,200 
1,663 
1,522 

593 
2,077 
1,650 
1,428 
52 

2,470 
2,513 

34 

11,000 
208 

144 
407 

870 

937 
925 
833 
718 

630 
750 
506 
432 
298 
838 
356 
651 
488 

1,056 

840 
700 

376 
740 

577 
1,  600 

Salta  

Salta  

Catamarca  
Tucuman  

Catamarca.  . 
Tucuman.  .  . 

Santiago  
San  Juan.  .  . 
La  Rioja  
C6rdoba  .... 
Santa  Fe".... 
Corrientes.  .  . 
Parana  
Mendoza  
San  Luis  
La  Plata  
Buenos  Aires 

San  Antonio. 
Formosa  .... 
Resistencia.  . 
Posadas.  .  .  . 
Sta.  Rosa  de 
Toay.  . 

Santiago  del  Es- 
tero  

San  Juan  

La  Rioja  

C6rdoba  

Santa  Fe"  

Corrientes  

Entre  Rios.  .  .  . 
Mendoza  

San  Luis  

Buenos  Aires.  .  . 
Federal  District 

TERRITORIES 
Los  Andes  

Formosa  

Chaco  

Misiones  

Pampa  Central. 
Neuquen  

Neuquen  .... 
Viedma  
Rawson  . 
Puerto  Galle- 
gos  

Rio  Negro  

Chubut  

Santa  Cruz  .... 
Tierra  delFuego 

Ushuaia.  .  .  . 

284  THE  EAST  COAST 

The  Territories  are  four  at  the  extreme  north,  and  the 
remaining  six  south  of  a  line  from  Mendoza  to  the  City  of 
Buenos  Aires. 

POPULATION 

With  an  estimated  population  of  at  least  8,600,000,  Argen- 
tina suffered  a  large  decrease  in  its  previously  great  immigra- 
tion, as  well  as  a  considerable  emigration,  during  the  Great 
War,  which  in  other  ways  at  first  gravely  interrupted  its  pros- 
perity. In  the  50  years  preceding  1912,  over  4,000,000  im- 
migrants had  entered  the  country,  more  than  3,000,000  remain- 
ing. Of  those  entering,  the  Italians  numbered  over  2,000,000, 
Spanish  over  1,000,000;  those  of  any  other  nationality  except 
200,000  French  were  each  fewer  than  100,000.  The  Negroes 
and  the  Indians  of  earlier  days,  except  perhaps  100,000  of  the 
latter  in  remote  sections,  have  become  assimilated  or  killed. 
The  Chaco  Indians,  it  is  said,  are  not  difficult  to  domesticate, 
especially  the  Tobas  living  near  the  Bermejo  River.  The 
people  are  generally  considered  the  most  homogeneous  of  any 
of  the  South  American  countries  except  Uruguay,  as  nearly 
all  are  of  European  descent.  Here  as  in  Chile  we  observe 
the  effect  of  location  in  the  temperate  zone,  all  of  the  country 
being  so  situated  except  a  small  section  at  the  north. 

A  great  preponderance  of  population  is  in  the  cities,  one 
fifth  of  the  whole  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires.  While  the 
people  are  proud  of  its  greatness  they  have  begun  to  realize 
that  this  concentration  is  not  for  the  general  welfare.  Forty- 
three  per  cent  of  the  urban  and  25  per  cent  of  the  entire 
population  is  said  to  be  foreign  born.  Aside  from  the  Capital 
of  the  Republic,  there  are  in  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires 
five  cities  with  a  population  above  50,000  and  a  dozen  more 
with  over  30,000.  In  Buenos  Aires  there  is  a  large  social  circle 
of  wealth  and  culture,  as  well  as  a  laboring  class  with  strong 
radical  elements. 


ARGENTINA  285 

EDUCATION 

Education  receives  much  attention  and  $25,000,000  are 
annually  devoted  to  this  purpose.  Primary  education  is  free 
and  called  compulsory.  There  are  primary  and  secondary 
schools,  Universities,  Normal  Schools,  Technical  Colleges, 
Schools  Agrarian  and  Veterinary,  of  Viticulture,  Mines,  Arts, 
and  Music.  The  Universities  are  at  Buenos  Aires,  La  Plata, 
Cordoba,  Tucuman,  and  Santa  Fe;  there  are  three  Schools  of 
Commerce  at  Buenos  Aires,  and  one  each  at  Rosario  and  Con- 
cordia.  In  various  towns  are  private  schools,  some  English 
and  American.  The  schools  generally  are  of  high  grade,  and 
it  was  said  by  a  former  Argentine  Ambassador,  corroborated  by 
other  persons  familiar  with  Buenos  Aires,  that  their  school 
children  knew  more  about  the  United  States  than  most  of  our 
business  men  and  Members  of  Congress  knew  about  Argentina. 
Many  of  their  school  buildings,  though  usually  smaller  than 
ours,  are  superior  in  architectural  beauty. 

PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

Press.  As  to  the  Press,  Buenos  Aires  can  boast  of  two 
of  the  wealthiest  and  best  newspapers  in  the  world,  the 
Prensa  and  the  Nation.  Not  many  years  ago,  the  Prensa 
contained  as  many  pages  of  telegraphic  and  cable  dispatches 
as  any  New  York  paper  had  columns,  and  articles  superior 
in  literary  and  intellectual  ability.  It  was  pronounced  by 
some  Europeans  the  best  newspaper  in  the  world.  Buenos 
Aires  has  other  papers  of  almost  equal  merit,  besides  several 
in  English  and  in  other  foreign  languages. 

Religion.  In  Religion  there  is  entire  freedom,  but  the 
President  must  be  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  One  in 
Buenos  Aires  no  longer  sees  women  with  mania,  or  lace 
veil  over  their  heads  for  church  going  as  on  the  West 
Coast. 

Telegraph.  Argentina  has  about  45,000  miles  of  tele- 


286  THE  EAST  COAST 

graph  lines,  ample  cable  connections,  and  a  dozen  or  more 
wireless  stations.  Telephones  are  in  general  use  in  all  the 
large  cities  and  in  many  smaller  places. 

Money  current  in  Argentina  is  paper,  with  coins  for 
small  change.  A  paper  peso  is  equal  to  .44  of  a  gold  peso, 
which  is  a  little  less  than  an  American  dollar,  96.48  cents; 
but  for  practical  purposes  except  in  large  transactions  a  paper 
peso  may  be  reckoned  as  44  cents. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
ARGENTINA:  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

Argentina  is  oftenest  thought  of  as  a  country  of  broad 
plains,  but  while  a  large  portion  of  the  country  is  of  this 
character  there  are  three  distinct  sections:  the  Mountains, 
the  Plateau,  and  the  Plains,  with  several  sub-divisions. 

MOUNTAINS 

We  know  that  the  Andes  form  the  western  boundary 
of  the  country  for  the  entire  distance  from  north  to  south, 
and  that  some  of  the  loftiest  summits  including  the  highest, 
Aconcagua,  are  in  Argentine  territory;  but  east  of  the  great 
Cordillera,  which  as  already  noted  is  less  steep  on  this  than 
on  the  Chilian  side,  are  other  ranges  of  the  same  and  other 
systems.  Two  or  three  extend  from  the  Bolivian  plateau, 
and  farther  down  spurs  run  out  from  the  main  chain.  In 
Cordoba  are  three  ranges  separate  from  the  Andes,  with 
one  peak  above  9000  feet;  a  peak  in  San  Luis  is  over  7000. 
Near  the  sea  in  the  Province  of  Buenos  Aires,  are  low 
mountains,  mere  hills  in  comparison,  one  reaching  a  height 
of  4000  feet;  and  in  Misiones  are  spurs  from  the  Brazilian 
Coast  Range,  the  highest  a  hill  about  1300  feet. 

PLATEAUS 

There  are  plateaus  in  the  north  among  the  mountains, 
but  the  distinctive  Plateau  Region  is  in  what  used  to  be 
called  Patagonia,  a  name  not  so  much  employed  in  Argen- 
tina as  formerly.  This  section  is  arranged  in  terraces,  fall- 
ing from  the  Andes  to  the  east,  the  western  part  called  the 

287 


288  THE  EAST  COAST 

Plateau,  having  an  altitude  of  2000-500  feet;  near  the  sea 
it  goes  from  the  latter  figure  to  sea  level.  The  Plateau  has 
many  sterile  plains,  some  strewn  with  boulders,  others  with 
dunes  of  sand ;  also  good  grazing  and  forest  land,  and  some 
suitable  for  farming. 

Lakes.  The  Andine  lakes  in  the  Patagonia  section  are 
of  glacial  origin,  with  much  scenic  beauty.  One  of  these, 
Nahuel-Huapi,  40  miles  long,  is  said  to  be  1000  feet  deep. 
Lake  Buenos  Aires,  partly  in  Chile,  is  75  miles  long.  The 
lakes  number  more  than  400;  at  the  north  are  many  swampy 
lagoons. 

PLAINS 

The  plains,  once  under  the  sea,  and  now  for  the  most 
part  less  than  500  feet  above  it  with  a  very  gradual  rise 
from  the  ocean  to  the  Andes,  extend  from  the  Pilcomayo 
River,  the  boundary  line  with  Western  Paraguay,  on  the 
north,  to  the  Rio  Negro  on  the  south.  The  northern  part 
belongs  to  the  Gran  Chaco,  swampy  and  partly  wooded, 
with  so  slight  a  southeastward  slope  that  large  spaces  are 
regularly  flooded  in  the  rainy  season.  South  of  the  Bermejo 
River  which  is  parallel  with  the  Pilcomayo,  the  land  is 
higher,  some  of  it  800  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  forests 
are  heavier ;  but  there  are  still  marshy  lagoons.  Then  come 
open  grassy  plains  with  occasional  salt  pans.  The  section 
between  the  Parana  and  Uruguay  Rivers,  called  the  Argen- 
tine Mesopotamia,  in  Corrientes  at  the  north  is  of  somewhat 
similar  character,  but  has  higher  land  in  Entre  Rios  at  the 
south.  The  remainder  of  the  plain  is  the  real  Pampa,  the 
part  west  of  the  Parana  River  and  below  that  extending  to 
the  ocean,  mainly,  treeless  and  grassy.  It  includes  the 
Provinces  of  Buenos  Aires,  Santa  Fe,  Cordoba,  San  Luis, 
Mendoza,  and  the  Territory  Pampa  Central.  In  the  far 
west  is  a  depressed  region  containing  some  lakes  and 
swamps  with  no  outlet,  but  with  too  little  rain. 


ARGENTINA 


RIVERS 

The  rivers  of  Argentina  are  of  great  importance,  being 
navigable  for  immense  distances.  Chief  among  them  are 
those  of  the  System  of  La  Plata,  this  river  being  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay:  a  great  river 
indeed,  the  outflow  of  water  being  80  per  cent  more  than 
that  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  drainage  basin  covering 
1,500,000  square  miles.  The  Paraguay,  Pilcomayo,  Bermejo, 
Salado  del  Norte,  Iguassu,  and  many  others  belong  to  this 
basin.  The  Iguassu,  though  not  navigable  except  for  a  mile 
from  the  Parana,  is  world  famed  for  its  magnificent  water- 
fall, surpassing  Niagara  in  height,  width,  and  most  of  the 
year  in  volume  of  water ;  while  it  is  rendered  altogether  in- 
comparable by  the  extraordinary  beauty  of  its  setting. 

The  Plata  River,  250  miles  long,  is  much  like  a  gulf, 
having  a  width  of  over  100  miles  at  its  mouth  between 
Capes  Santa  Maria  in  Uruguay  and  San  Antonio  in  the 
Province  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  Parana  River  with  many 
tributaries  has  two  principal  sources  well  up  in  Brazil  and 
a  total  length  of  2600  miles,  about  one  half  in  or  on  the 
border  of  Argentine  territory.  At  first  flowing  south  it 
turns  west  between  Argentina  and  Paraguay,  and  after  re- 
ceiving the  Paraguay  River  again  flows  south  in  Argen- 
tina. From  January  to  September,  nine  months,  it  is  open 
to  trans-Atlantic  steamers  to  Rosario ;  for  6000  ton  vessels, 
12  foot  draft,  to  Parana  or  Colastine,  the  port  of  Santa  Fe; 
for  smaller  steamers  up  the  Alto  Parana  nearly  to  the  Falls 
of  La  Guayra,  a  little  above  the  northeast  extremity  of 
Argentina.  Steamers  of  7  foot  draft  go  up  the  Paraguay 
to  Asuncion  and  smaller  steamers  to  Corumba  in  Matto 
Grosso,  Brazil,  2000  miles  from  Buenos  Aires,  and  beyond 
to  Cuyaba.  Forty-two  miles  up  stream  from  Buenos  Aires 
is  Ibicuy,  a  port  where  a  steam  ferry  operates,  carrying 
trains  to  and  from  Zarate  on  the  Buenos  Aires  side. 

A  few  small  streams  flow  into  lagoons  with  no  outlet;  a 


290  THE  EAST  COAST 

number  in  the  Buenos  Aires  Province  flow  into  the  Atlantic. 
Farther  south  are  rivers  of  more  importance,  among  these 
the  Rio  Negro  and  the  Colorado,  the  only  ones  of  this  sec- 
tion easily  and  regularly  navigable. 

CLIMATE 

The  climate  of  Argentina  naturally  varies  on  account  of 
its  wide  range  of  latitude,  as  well  as  from  increasing  alti- 
tude in  the  mountainous  section.  The  prevailing  winds, 
the  mountain  barriers,  and  the  sea  also  modify  the  climate 
in  restricted  locations.  The  conditions  of  temperature  and 
rainfall  are  different  from  those  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 
Thus  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  south  main  land  are  more 
habitable  than  corresponding  latitudes  in  Labrador,  partly 
by  reason  of  a  southern  equatorial  current ;  it  is  an  excellent 
region  for  sheep  raising.  At  the  same  time  it  is  colder  than 
at  similar  latitudes  of  Western  Europe,  as  the  prevailing 
west  winds  are  chilled  by  the  mountains. 

In  the  Provinces  of  Buenos  Aires,  Mesopotamia,  and 
Santa  Fe  the  average  temperature  in  January  is  72°,  the 
maximum  97°— 107° ;  the  annual  at  the  Capital  city  is  62.6°, 
farther  south  42°.  In  Buenos  Aires  it  may  rain  at  any  time, 
but  the  greatest  precipitation  is  in  the  summer  and  fall.  In 
summer  there  is  a  land  breeze  by  day  and  a  sea  breeze  at 
night.  The  north  winds  are  hot  and  unhealthful,  ending  in 
violent  storms.  Southwest  winds,  the  pamperos,  which  are 
gales,  sometimes  hurricanes,  are  invigorating.  The  central 
region  has  greater  extremes  of  daily  heat  and  of  annual 
temperature,  the  widest  at  Cordoba ;  Santiago  is  the  warm- 
est of  the  Provinces.  In  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires  the  mer- 
cury in  summer  may  reach  107° ;  in  winter  it  goes  below 
freezing  only  a  few  times,  but  there  is  a  peculiar  chill  in 
the  atmosphere  which  causes  strong  men,  who  never  did  so 
in  New  York  or  Boston,  to  wear  heavy  woolen  underwear. 
The  country  has  200  meteorological  stations. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

ARGENTINA:  THE  CAPITAL,  INDIVIDUAL 
PROVINCES  AND  TERRITORIES 

THE  CAPITAL 

Buenos  Aires,  the  metropolis  of  South  America,  the 
largest  city  on  that  continent,  and  fourth  in  all  America, 
has  also  a  wide  reputation  as  the  second  Latin  city  in  the 
world.  Its  population  is  well  towards  2,000,000,  its  area 
is  more  than  double  that  of  Paris.  All  its  splendors  may 
not  here  be  rehearsed.  The  attractions  of  its  74  beautiful 
parks  and  plazas,  its  fine  avenues,  its  magnificent  Capitol 
and  other  public  buildings,  its  beautiful  opera  house,  almost 
the  finest  in  the  world,  the  many  artistic  and  sumptuous 
residences,  the  excellent  hotels,  with  many  other  admirable 
features  make  it  a  city  delightsome  to  tourist  and  resident. 
The  city  is  spoken  of  as  a  very  expensive  place  to  live,  but 
in  ordinary  times,  some  things  were  cheaper  than  in  New 
York  while  others  were  much  dearer.  Rents  were  high, 
the  prices  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  etc.  In  general,  in  other 
places  in  Argentina  prices  were  higher  for  poor  accommo- 
dations than  in  Europe  before  the  War  for  far  better.  As 
a  business  centre,  Buenos  Aires  naturally  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance for  the  southern  part  of  the  continent.  From  here  it 
is  easy  to  visit  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and  since  the  opening 
of  the  Trans-Continental,  Chile  also;  while  in  every  direc- 
tion railways  radiate  to  the  chief  cities  of  Argentina,  even 
to  those  that  are  accessible  by  boat. 


291 


292  THE  EAST  COAST 

PROVINCES  AND  TERRITORIES 

We  may  perhaps  get  the  geography  of  the  Republic  most 
accurately  if  we  begin  near  the  countries  with  which  we 
are  familiar  at  the  northwest,  and  come  from  the  outskirts 
to  the  commercial  and  political  centre  of  the  Republic. 

Jujuy  in  the  northwest  corner  naturally  has  on  the  north 
Bolivia,  which  comes  down  a  little  on  the  west,  where  it 
is  followed  by  a  bit  of  Chile,  then  by  the  Argentine  Terri- 
tory of  Los  Andes.  The  last  is  also  on  the  south  with  a 
longer  stretch  of  the  Province  of  Salta,  which  extends  along 
the  entire  east  border  as  well.  Here  in  Jujuy  we  are  again 
among  the  mountains,  for  three  ranges  come  from  Bolivia, 
passing  on  through  Salta  at  the  south.  The  puna  at  the  north- 
west is  nearly  12,000  feet  high;  on  this  arid  plateau  are  two 
salt  lakes.  The  mountains  reach  an  altitude  of  15,000-20,000 
feet.  There  are  low  valleys  too,  where  there  is  mixed  farm- 
ing, not  many  cattle.  Above  are  the  wild  vicunas,  guanacos, 
and  chinchillas,  as  in  Bolivia,  and  various  minerals  includ- 
ing gold,  silver,  petroleum,  etc.,  not  much  worked.  Sugar 
refining  and  wine  making  are  important. 

The  capital,  Jujuy,  is  in  a  rich  and  picturesque  valley  as 
low  as  3675  feet,  from  which  the  railway  climbs  rapidly  to 
La  Quiaca,  on  the  border  of  Bolivia. 

Salta  extends  along  the  southern  border  of  Bolivia  from 
Jujuy  to  Formosa  and  Gran  Chaco  on  the  east ;  on  the  south 
are  Santiago,  Tucuman,  and  Catamarca;  on  the  west  Los 
Andes  with  Jujuy.  The  north  and  west  sections  are  moun- 
tainous and  cold,  with  high  table-lands  and  fertile  valleys; 
in  the  east  the  terrain  comes  down  to  the  tropical  country, 
where  in  places  there  are  forests  though  some  sections  are 
hot  and  dry.  Temperate  and  tropical  products  are  found 
here ;  in  the  mountains  are  many  varieties  of  minerals.  Cat- 
tle are  raised,  some  being  driven  over  the  mountains  into 
Chile ;  hence  the  proposed  railway  to  Antofagasta. 

Salta,  the  capital,  with  an  agreeable  climate,  is  a  con- 


ARGENTINA  293 

siderable  town,  important  as  a  railway  centre  and  with  trade 
of  various  kinds. 

Los  Andes,  a  Territory  at  the  west,  is  a  bleak  mountain 
region,  once  belonging  to  Chile,  and  a  part  of  the  Puna  de 
Atacama.  It  is  but  slightly  explored,  dry  and  sandy,  with 
salt  marshes;  it  appears  to  be  rich  in  minerals. 

San  Antonio,  the  capital,  is  a  place  of  small  importance 
not  on  a  railway. 

Formosa  and  Gran  Chaco,  Territories  east  of  Salta,  are 
precisely  opposite  to  Los  Andes  in  character.  Formosa  has 
Bolivia  on  the  northwest;  on  the  long  northeast  boundary 
the  Pilcomayo  River  separates  it  from  Paraguay,  which  is 
also  at  the  southeast,  there  separated  by  the  Paraguay 
River.  On  the  southwest  the  Bermejo  divides  it  from  the 
Chaco,  while  Salta  is  west. 

The  Chaco  of  similar  shape  has  at  the  southeast  a  bit  of 
the  Paraguay  River  and  country,  and  below  a  little  of  Cor- 
rientes  across  the  Parana.  Santa  Fe  and  Santiago  del  Estero 
are  on  the  south,  the  latter  with  Salta  west.  These  two 
Territories  are  truly  semi-tropical,  flat  or  undulating,  slop- 
ing to  the  southeast,  partly  covered  with  dense  forests, 
not  thoroughly  explored ;  partly  with  open  plains,  lakes  and 
marshes,  many  rivers,  much  very  fertile  land  suited  to 
tropical  products,  some  of  which  are  grown,  and  excellent 
pasturage  where  herds  of  cattle  are  bred,  horses,  sheep,  and 
goats.  The  quebracho  industry  for  tannin,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  sugar  are  important,  with  some  cotton  plantations 
and  castor  oil  factories. 

Formosa,  capital  of  that  Territory,  is  important  as  a 
port,  shipping  a  variety  of  products  down  the  river,  and 
as  the  terminus  of  a  railway  to  go  to  Embarcacion,  opening 
up  this  rich  Territory. 

Resistencia,  capital  of  the  Chaco,  on  the  Parana  River, 
is  of  equal  and  growing  importance.  It  has  railway  con- 
nection with  Santa  Fe. 

Misiones,  at  the  extreme  northeast  of  Argentina,  is  a 


294  THE  EAST  COAST 

Territory  of  some  similarity  to  the  two  just  mentioned,  but 
with  greater  attractions  and  merit.  Long  and  narrow,  it 
extends  up  between  Paraguay  and  Brazil,  separated  from 
the  former  country  by  the  Parana  River  on  the  west,  from 
the  latter  by  the  Iguassii  on  the  north  and  by  the  Uruguay 
on  the  southeast,  Brazil  enclosing  it  on  the  north,  east,  and 
south.  Misiones  joins  the  rest  of  Argentina  only  by  a  small 
strip  along  the  Province  Corrientes  on  the  southwest. 
Misiones  is  a  subtropical  garden  largely  covered  with  beau- 
tiful forests  where  the  picking  of  mate  leaves  is  a  leading  in- 
dustry; there  is  some  timber  extraction,  and  saw  mills.  It 
is  an  undulating  plain  with  ranges  of  low  mountains  and 
hills.  There  are  various  minerals,  and  in  open  spaces  some 
cattle. 

Posadas,  the  capital,  is  a  pleasant  town,  important  as  a 
railway  and  steamboat  junction. 

Catamarca,  a  Province  again  at  the  west,  we  find  bor- 
dering on  Chile,  south  of  Los  Andes  and  Salta,  with  Tucu- 
man  and  Santiago  east,  and  Cordoba  and  La  Rioja  south. 
The  Province  is  largely  mountainous,  one  peak  in  the  east- 
ern range,  Aconquija,  being  over  15,000  feet.  Some  short 
torrential  streams,  formerly  disappearing  in  salt  marshes, 
are  now  utilized  for  irrigation.  Cereals  and  other  agricul- 
tural products,  also  cattle  are  raised.  The  Province  is  rich 
in  minerals,  with  workings  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead, 
and  salt. 

Catamarca,  the  capital,  on  the  Catamarca  River,  is  of 
some  importance  as  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district. 

Tucuman,  east  of  Catamarca,  south  of  Salta,  with  San- 
tiago east  and  south,  is  the  smallest  of  the  Provinces,  but 
more  varied  in  character  than  most.  It  has  snow-capped 
mountains,  and  well  watered  valleys  and  plains,  some  quite 
tropical;  with  agriculture,  or  with  dense  forests  of  que- 
bracho, oak,  pine,  etc.  There  is  activity  in  sugar  refining 
and  tanning,  with  steam  saw  mills,  and  with  cereals  and 
fruit. 


ARGENTINA  295 

Tucuman,  the  capital,  is  a  large  city,  especially  impor- 
tant, as  the  center  of  the  sugar  industry,  and  with  many 
varied  interests. 

Santiago  del  Estero,  more  than  seven  times  the  size  of 
Tucuman,  is  south  of  Salta  and  the  Chaco,  with  Chaco  and 
Santa  Fe  east,  Cordoba  south,  and  Catamarca  and  Tucuman 
west.  Mostly  in  the  lowlands,  it  is  in  places  covered  with 
forest;  in  other  parts  is  a  salt,  clayey,  partial  desert  which 
is  now  being  crossed  by  railways.  Here  woodmen  cut  out 
quebracho  trees,  though  in  this  section  it  does  not  rain  for 
ii  months  in  the  year,  nor  can  wells,  they  say,  be  dug  to 
get  water  unless  they  are  over  3000  feet  deep,  as  water 
obtained  higher  is  salt.  The  summer  temperature  by  day 
runs  nearly  to  120°  F.,  while  in  winter  it  falls  to  50°,  with 
cool  nights  always.  Water  difficulties  are  obviously  great, 
worse  than  formerly  at  Iquique.  To  cross  these  partly  for- 
ested deserts  by  rail  is  a  4O-hour  journey.  Between  the  two 
rivers,  the  Salado  and  Dulce,  both  used  for  irrigation,  the 
soil  is  fertile,  producing  sugar  cane,  vines,  wheat,  alfalfa, 
for  which  the  soil  is  favorable,  coffee,  and  tobacco.  Some 
quarrying  of  marble  and  gypsum  goes  on;  but  timber  is 
the  main  industry. 

The  capital  is  a  small  town  of  the  same  name  on  the 
Rio  Dulce. 

La  Rioja  is  a  long,  irregularly  shaped  Province  south  of 
Catamarca,  with  that  and  Cordoba  east,  San  Luis  and  San 
Juan  south,  the  latter  running  nearly  all  the  way  up  on 
the  west,  leaving  a  small  space  of  Rioja  bordering  on  Chile. 
Among  high  mountains  at  the  west  are  fertile  irrigated  valleys 
with  varied  agriculture;  there  are  forests  with  quebracho, 
carob,  and  acacia ;  but  much  of  the  eastern  part  is  low,  sandy, 
and  barren.  Great  mineral  wealth  of  many  varieties  exists,  but 
silver  and  copper  are  chiefly  exploited. 

La  Rioja,  the  capital,  is  the  centre  df  a  rich  fruit  growing 
district,  with  some  mining. 

San  Juan,  with  an  extended  border  on  Chile,  has  Rioja 


296  THE  EAST  COAST 

north  and  east,  San  Luis  and  Mendoza  on  the  south,  on 
the  west  are  lofty  mountains  and  well  watered  valleys;  in 
the  east  barren  sand  hills  and  marshes.  Wine  making  is 
the  most  important  industry ;  varied  minerals  give  promise 
for  the  future.  The  Province  has  been  called  rather  slow, 
but  it  is  now  said  to  be  waking  up;  irrigation  is  beginning 
and  other  improvements  will  follow. 

Cordoba,  an  important  Province,  much  larger,  is  the 
fourth  in  population  and  the  second  in  wheat  production. 
It  has  Santiago  north,  Santa  Fe  east,  Buenos  Aires  and  La 
Pampa  south,  and  San  Luis,  La  Rioja,  and  Catamarca  west. 
Although  mostly  rather  flat,  there  are  mountains  in  the 
northwest  of  an  altitude  of  8000-9000  feet  among  which  are 
deep  broad  valleys.  The  country  is  chiefly  agricultural  and 
pastoral. 

Cordoba,  the  old  capital,  founded  in  1573,  in  a  charming 
location  among  the  hills,  preserves  some  rather  mediaeval 
characteristics,  its  university  dating  from  1613.  A  wonder- 
ful reservoir  is  near,  the  Dique  San  Roque,  called  one  of  the 
largest  semi-natural  reservoirs  in  the  world.  A  wall  of 
masonry  was  built  across  a  gorge  among  the  mountains 
forming  a  lake  which  holds  825,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water. 
Fifteen  miles  lower  is  a  basin  from  which  lead  two  primary 
canals  carrying  water  for  irrigation,  which  extends  over 
300,000  acres. 

Mendoza,  the  third  largest  Province  and  the  most  south- 
ern of  the  Andean,  with  a  long  border  on  Chile,  is  just  below 
San  Juan;  has  San  Luis  on  the  east,  and  on  the  south  the 
Territories  of  La  Pampa  Central  and  Neuquen.  The  sur- 
face is  much  diversified,  containing  the  highest  peaks  of  the 
Andes  including  Aconcagua  at  the  west,  and  eight  passes 
across  the  Andes,  among  them,  the  famous  Uspallata,  at 
the  summit  of  which  is  the  celebrated  statue,  the  Christ  of 
the  Andes,  at  a  height  of  12,796  feet  above  the  sea.  More 
than  2000  feet  below,  the  Trans-Andine  tunnel  pierces  the 
range.  The  Province  has  many  rivers  from  which  there  is 


ARGENTINA  297 

extensive  irrigation;  for  the  climate  and  the  soil  are  dry, 
though  the  latter  is  fertile  when  irrigated.  It  is  a  great 
section  for  grapes. 

Mendoza,  the  capital,  is  headquarters  for  the  wine  in- 
dustry. Grapes  are  brought  thither  from  the  regions 
north  and  south.  Raisins  and  alcohol  are  also  produced. 
Excellent  livestock,  cattle,  horses,  mules,  donkeys,  sheep, 
goats,  and  pigs  are  raised;  in  the  San  Rafael  section,  Dur- 
hams  and  Herefords,  many  of  which  are  sent  over  to  Chile. 

San  Luis,  east  both  of  Mendoza  and  San  Juan,  lies  south 
of  La  Rioja  and  Cordoba,  has  the  latter  and  La  Pampa  east, 
and  La  Pampa  south.  The  Province  has  mountains  of  the 
Cordoba  system,  some  rising  to  a  height  of  7000  feet,  with 
fertile  well  watered  valleys;  at  the  west  are  swamps,  while 
the  south  is  flat  and  arid.  There  are  a  number  of  rivers 
and  much  attention  is  paid  to  agriculture,  to  cattle  raising, 
and  horse  breeding.  The  minerals,  of  great  variety,  are 
hardly  noticed. 

Santa  Fe,  the  last  of  the  Provinces  west  of  the  Parana 
River,  extends  along  its  right  bank  from  the  Chaco  on  the 
north  a  distance  of  nearly  500  miles  to  the  Province  of 
Buenos  Aires  on  the  south,  with  Corrientes  and  Entre  Rios 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  Cordoba  and  Santiago  on 
the  west.  This  State,  second  in  population  to  Buenos  Aires, 
though  fifth  in  area,  is  a  great  plain  with  slight  elevations, 
having  dense  forests  at  the  north,  at  the  south  the  fertile 
prairie,  and  along  the  great  river  many  islands,  covered  with 
luxuriant  vegetation.  It  is  an  agricultural,  cattle  raising 
country,  with  mills  and  factories  also;  and  with  extensive 
commerce  in  cereals,  meat,  hides,  quebracho  extract,  and 
timber,  from  the  many  fluvial  ports.  The  chief  of  these, 
Rosario,  is  the  second  largest  city  of  the  Republic  with  a 
population  of  317,000.  The  Province  contains  3000  miles  of 
railway. 

Corrientes,  east  and  south  of  the  Parana  River,  therefore 
south  of  Paraguay,  has  Misiones  at  the  northeast,  Brazil 


298  THE  EAST  COAST 

east,  across  the  Uruguay  River,  Entre  Rios  south,  and 
Santa  Fe  and  the  Gran  Chaco  west  across  the  Parana.  The 
Province  has  temperate  uplands  and  warmer  lowlands,  and 
is  well  watered  by  rivers  and  some  lakes  and  marshes. 
Corrientes  is  prominent  as  a  cattle-raising  State  and  has 
also  large  flocks  of  sheep. 

The  capital,  Corrientes,  is  an  important  river-port  vis- 
ited during  most  of  the  year  by  vessels  drawing  12  or  13 
feet.  Goya,  farther  south,  is  famed  for  its  excellent  cheese. 

Entre  Rios,  south  of  Corrientes,  has  Uruguay  east  be- 
yond the  Uruguay  River,  Buenos  Aires  south  across  the 
Parana,  and  Santa  Fe  beyond  the  same  river  on  the  west. 
It  is  in  general  a  fertile,  well-watered  plain,  with  a  forest 
region  at  the  northwest  running  over  into  Corrientes,  con- 
taining much  valuable  timber.  It  is  a  stock-raising  and 
an  agricultural  region,  largely  devoted  to  cereals,  with 
grain  of  the  finest  quality.  It  has  also  many  industrial 
establishments. 

Parana,  the  capital,  is  a  growing  centre  with  some  fine 
buildings,  electric  lights,  and  other  facilities.  Concordia,  on 
the  Uruguay  River,  is  an  important  commercial  town. 

Buenos  Aires,  the  last,  largest,  and  most  important  of  the 
Provinces,  with  the  greatest  population,  is  the  only  one  with 
an  ocean  front.  Buenos  Aires  has  on  the  north  Cordoba 
and  Santa  Fe;  northeast,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Parana 
and  La  Plata,  Entre  Rios  and  Uruguay;  the  Atlantic  is  on 
the  east  and  south  with  a  bit  of  Rio  Negro,  which  with  La 
Pampa  is  on  the  west,  with  a  little  also  of  Cordoba.  The  land  is 
flat,  but  with  two  ranges  of  hills;  the  highest  in  one  range 
is  1200,  in  the  other  about  3000  feet.  Several  useful,  some 
navigable  rivers  flow  towards  the  ocean.  The  country  is 
agricultural  and  pastoral,  especially  devoted  to  cattle  and 
wheat,  but  in  the  numerous  towns,  industries  and  manu- 
factories are  developing.  Many  great  railway  systems  con- 
verge at  the  Federal  Capital.  There  are  good  roads  near 
most  of  the  towns,  which  is  not  the  case  in  the  other  Prov- 


ARGENTINA  299 

inces,  and  good  auto  roads  lead  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Tigre 
and  to  La  Plata. 

South  of  the  Provinces,  at  least  below  Buenos  Aires,  is 
what  was  once  called  Patagonia,  now  divided  into  Terri- 
tories. 

La  Pampa  Central,  a  Territory  which  extends  farther 
north,  is  already  from  its  population  entitled  to  be  a  Prov- 
ince. Lying  south  of  Mendoza,  San  Luis,  and  Cordoba,  it 
has  Buenos  Aires  on  the  east,  Rio  Negro  Territory  south, 
with  the  Colorado  River  as  the  dividing  line;  and  west, 
Neuquen  and  Mendoza.  The  Territory  is  undulating,  with 
hills,  valleys,  prairie,  and  lakes;  the  soil  is  generally  fer- 
tile, yielding  fine  crops ;  wheat,  corn,  barley,  linseed,  alfalfa, 
vines,  fruits.  Large  herds  of  cattle  roam  over  the  pastures 
but  are  usually  sent  out  for  fattening. 

Neuquen,  south  of  Mendoza,  borders  on  Chile,  has  Rio 
Negro  south,  and  also  with  La  Pampa,  east.  The  north 
and  east  parts  are  arid,  but  the  west  mountain  section  has 
fine  fertile  valleys  and  forests,  with  many  rivers  and  lakes. 
A  railway  now  making  this  section  accessible,  it  will  be 
more  attractive  to  settlers. 

Rio  Negro,  first  of  the  divisions  of  Argentina  to  stretch 
across  the  country,  has  Neuquen  and  La  Pampa  on  the 
north,  Buenos  Aires  and  the  Atlantic  east,  Chubut  south, 
and  Chile  and  Neuquen  west.  The  section  between  the 
Negro  and  Colorado  Rivers  is  fertile,  also  patches  near  other 
streams;  wherever  irrigated,  good  crops  of  wheat,  corn,  oats, 
and  alfalfa  are  certain.  Fruits  and  vines  do  well  in  the 
Negro  Valley.  Excellent  timber  is  exported  in  beams  and 
planks.  There  are  some  towns  and  many  agricultural  col- 
onies ;  trade  goes  on  with  Chile  in  cattle  and  sheep.  Several 
rivers  are  navigable  and  a  railway  has  been  constructed 
from  the  port  San  Antonio  to  Lake  Nahuel-Huapi. 

Chubut,  south  of  Rio  Negro,  also  extends  across  from 
the  Atlantic  to  Chile,  with  Santa  Cruz  on  the  south.  The 
central  part  has  little  vegetation  but  in  the  west  are  fertile 


300  THE  EAST  COAST 

valleys,  and  good  grazing  for  cattle  and  sheep.  There  are 
millions  of  each,  and  many  horses.  Cereals  and  alfalfa  are 
also  raised  in  the  east,  with  temperate  zone  fruits  and 
berries.  Near  the  oil  fields  of  Comodoro  Rivadavia  is  ex- 
cellent farming  land  under  cultivation.  In  this  section  there 
is  now  great  activity  on  account  of  the  petroleum  develop- 
ment; some  railways  have  been  constructed  and  one  is  ex- 
pected soon  to  cross  the  country.  There  is  trade  in  wool 
and  hides;  gold,  copper,  and  salt  exist. 

Santa  Cruz,  the  largest  division  next  to  Buenos  Aires, 
south  of  Chubut,  has  the  Atlantic  on  the  east  and  Chile  on 
the  south  and  west.  The  northwest  is  rather  barren  and 
rocky,  with  dense  forests  farther  south ;  but  near  the  coast 
and  south  of  the  Santa  Cruz  River  are  fine  pastures  sup- 
porting great  flocks  of  sheep.  There  are  many  rivers  and 
lakes,  several,  like  the  Buenos  Aires,  on  or  near  the  Chilian 
boundary.  Wool,  frozen  mutton,  and  timber  are  exported. 

Tierra  del  Fuego  has  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  north, 
east,  and  south,  with  the  Chilian  part  of  the  island  on  the 
west.  This  triangular  part  of  the  island  is  mountainous, 
but  has  sheltered  valleys,  good  pasturage,  and  vast  forests 
with  excellent  timber,  to  some  extent  exploited.  There  are 
large  flocks  of  sheep;  the  gold  and  copper  deposits  are 
unworked  except  for  washing  the  sands.  The  capital, 
Ushuaia,  on  the  Beagle  Channel,  is  a  small  penal  colony. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

ARGENTINA:  SEAPORTS  AND  INTERIOR  TRANS- 
PORTATION 

Argentina  has  a  long  sea  coast,  about  1300  miles,  with 
a  number  of  gulfs  and  good  harbors.  The  ports  of  Buenos 
Aires  and  Ensenada,  both  constructed  at  great  expense,  on 
the  wide  La  Plata  River,  may  be  regarded  as  seaports.  The 
best  natural  harbor  is  500  miles  by  sea  south  of  Buenos 
Aires,  Bahia  Blanca,  where  the  Government  has  built  a  port 
and  naval  station,  and  the  harbor  is  accessible  to  large  ocean 
vessels.  Farther  south  are  other  ports,  not  greatly  fre- 
quented on  account  of  lack  of  population,  but  of  growing 
importance.  North  of  Buenos  Aires  are  river  ports,  some 
of  these  visited  by  ocean  steamers,  others  by  river  boats 
only,  a  few  of  the  latter  1000  miles  from  the  sea.  The  river 
ports  above  Buenos  Aires  with  facilities  for  ocean  liners 
besides  Rosario,  are  Campana,  Zarate,  Ibicuy,  San  Nicolas, 
and  Santa  Fe  (Colastine). 

SEAPORTS 

Buenos  Aires  has  port  facilities  of  the  first  order,  though 
insufficient  for  its  great  commerce.  These  are  in  two  divi- 
sions: one,  the  natural  port,  is  on  the  Riachuelo,  a  small 
river  south  of  the  city,  which  probably  determined  the  pre- 
cise location  of  its  site.  The  river  admits  vessels  of  i8-foot 
draft.  Capable  of  an  annual  traffic  of  1,200,000  tons,  it  is 
of  great  value  in  national  commerce.  There  are  wooden 
quays  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  now  to  be  rebuilt  at  a 
cost  of  $400,000,  and  on  the  south,  concrete  docks  and  quays 
constructed  by  the  Southern  Railway.  On  that  side  are  some 

SOl 


302  THE  EAST  COAST 

of  the  noted  frigorificos  and  the  famous  Merc  ado  de  Frutos, 
the  Central  Produce  Market,  with  180,000  square  yards  of 
floor  space. 

The  main  port,  receiving  the  ocean  steamers,  is  on  the  city 
front,  extending  two  miles  directly  along  the  Plata  River.  Con- 
structed at  great  expense,  and  expected  to  supply  the  needs  of 
the  city  for  years,  it  was  completed  in  1897;  but  the  growth  of 
the  city  soon  outran  its  capacity,  so  that  in  1911  provision  was 
made  for  its  enlargement,  which,  however,  has  not  yet  been 
accomplished.  About  $35,000,000  have  been  spent  altogether. 
The  port  consists  of  two  basins,  darsenas,  the  north  and  south, 
with  four  docks  between  having  a  depth  of  23  feet  and  a  total 
area  of  164  acres.  The  length  of  the  quays  which  may  be  used 
for  loading  and  discharging  freight  is  about  ten  miles.  Along 
the  docks  are  33  warehouses  with  30,000,000  tons  capacity,  and 
four  sheds.  Grain  elevators  have  a  total  capacity  of  300,000 
tons  of  cereals,  and  granaries  of  55,000  tons  in  sacks.  Load- 
ing under  cover,  the  work  goes  on  in  bad  weather,  each  elevator 
loading  20,000  tons  a  day.  Two  dry  docks  accommodate  ships 
400  feet  long;  874  electric  lights,  100  feet  apart,  serve  the  har- 
bor entrance.  Sixty-four  thousand  ships  with  22,000,000  ton- 
nage have  entered  the  harbor  in  a  year,  bringing  85  per  cent 
of  the  imports  and  carrying  out  50  per  cent  of  the  exports  of 
the  country. 

Ensenada,  the  port  of  the  made-to-order  city  of  La  Plata, 
more  noteworthy  for  its  university  and  museum  than  for  its 
commercial  affairs,  has  been  constructed  for  the  relief  of 
Buenos  Aires,  and  because,  35  miles  lower  down,  the  water 
naturally  has  greater  depth.  The  port  has  8000  feet  of 
quays,  warehouses,  and  other  necessary  appliances.  Two 
American  packing  houses  are  here  located. 

Mar  del  Plata,  the  Newport  of  South  America,  250  miles 
by  rail  south  of  Buenos  Aires,  is  being  developed  also  as  a 
commercial  port,  with  quays,  warehouses,  etc. 

Bahia  Blanca,  with  a  population  of  80,000  in  the  city 
and  its  several  ports,  is  about  700  miles  south  of  Buenos 


ARGENTINA  303 

Aires.  It  is  of  such  importance  that  the  Southern  Railway 
has  four  different  routes  for  the  journey.  The  city  also  has 
direct  connection  with  Mendoza  and  with  other  parts  of  the 
country.  Being  situated  on  a  large  well  protected  bay  of  the 
ocean,  it  has  a  naturally  better  harbor  than  Buenos  Aires 
and  may  be  compared  to  Liverpool  as  Buenos  Aires  to 
London.  Since  1882  its  development  has  been  rapid.  With 
more  than  ordinary  advantages  for  business  for  a  city  of 
its  size,  including  factories,  warehouses,  and  good  hotels, 
it  is  a  railway  centre  for  lines  spreading  over  the  agricul- 
tural and  stock-raising  districts  of  southern  Buenos  Aires, 
La  Pampa,  San  Luis,  Mendoza,  and  San  Juan,  and  is  the 
natural  port  for  these  regions.  Belgrano,  said  to  belong  to 
the  Compagnie  Frangaise,  is  the  real  harbor  of  the  city. 
Near  is  the  port  Ingeniero  White  with  a  T-shaped  pier, 
accommodating  16  ships  in  30  feet  of  water.  Electrical  ele- 
vators handle  6000  tons  of  grain  in  eight  hours,  while  ex- 
tensive shops  and  foundries  are  a  part  of  the  equipment. 
Puerto  Gal  van,  ij^  miles  west,  belongs  to  the  Buenos  Aires 
and  Pacific  Railway.  Eight  ocean  steamers  of  25-foot  draft 
and  one  of  30  may  be  accommodated  here.  The  basins  and 
warehouses  are  of  reinforced  concrete;  elevators  with  stor- 
age capacity  of  18,000  tons  and  other  facilities  exist.  Besides 
the  commercial  ports,  Bahia  Blanca  has  also  the  naval  port 
of  the  Republic,  25  miles  southwest  of  the  city  on  the  South- 
ern Railway.  The  channel  entrance  is  25  feet  deep  at  high 
tide ;  there  are  various  quays,  also  a  dry  dock,  730  feet  long 
and  33  deep;  a  new  one  of  larger  size  is  in  preparation. 
Other  facilities  are  provided,  machinery,  workshops,  hos- 
pital, electric  lighting,  etc.  There  are  various  fortifications, 
strategic  railway,  telegraph,  semaphores,  and  light-houses. 
Hotels  for  immigrants  have  been  built  in  the  city  nearby 
for  the  benefit  of  those  who  will  go  to  work  in  the  south. 
Sanitary  works,  costing  nearly  $2,000,000,  are  to  be  installed. 
Smaller  Ports.  A  number  of  small  ports  on  the  ocean 
are  served  by  the  Mihanovich  Line,  formerly  also  by  Ger- 


304  THE  EAST  COAST 

man  lines,  while  various  ocean  steamers  call  at  individual 
ports.  Viedma  on  the  Negro  River  is  the  chief  port  for  the 
Rio  Negro  Province,  with  a  fine  harbor.  San  Antonio  is  on 
the  same  Gulf.  On  the  large  Gulf  Nuevo  are  the  ports 
Piramides  on  the  north  side  and  Madryn  on  the  south,  the 
latter  a  small  place,  but  with  over-seas  and  coasting  trade; 
a  railway  45  miles  long  goes  to  Trelew,  and  to  the  capital 
of  Chubut,  Rawson.  On  Camerones  Bay  several  British 
companies  have  large  sheep  ranches  which  many  years  ago 
counted  250,000  sheep,  2500  cattle,  and  4000  horses. 

Comodoro  Rivadavia,  the  famous  oil  port,  is  on  the  Gulf 
of  St.  George,  with  Visser  and  other  ports  in  the  vicinity. 
Deseado  is  a  small  port  with  anchorage  for  ships  six  miles 
in.  San  Julian  has  a  harbor  with  seven  fathoms  of  water. 
Puerto  Gallegos  affords  good  anchorage  ten  miles  up  stream 
for  ships  of  io-2O-foot  draft.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  near. 
This  port,  the  capital  of  Santa  Cruz,  has  weekly  service  to 
Punta  Arenas.  Santa  Cruz,  on  a  river  of  that  name,  is  the 
most  important  town,  with  a  fish  cultural  establishment. 
Ushuaia  receives  monthly  calls,  the  voyage  from  Buenos 
Aires  occupying  45-50  days  according  to  the  number  of 
calls  en  route. 

INLAND  TRANSPORTATION 

The  rivers  of  Argentina  are  of  great  importance  for 
inland  traffic,  with  many  ports  of  local  service  for  the  export 
of  grain  and  other  products,  and  for  varied  imports;  the 
chief  towns  so  engaged  deserve  mention.  On  the  Parana 
River,  the  principal  artery  of  river  travel,  excellent  steamers 
run  up  to  Corrientes,  and  on  the  Paraguay  as  far  as  Formosa 
and  Asuncion;  larger  ones  go  to  Rosario  only,  a  night 
journey  of  240  miles,  passing  a  number  of  small  ports  on  the 
way. 

Rosario's  importance  as  a  commercial  city  is  due  to 
General  Urquiza,  who  in  1859  made  it  a  port  of  entry.  Ocean 


ARGENTINA  805 

steamers  drawing  28  feet  come  to  its  docks.  Situated  in 
the  great  cereal  section,  as  a  grain  port  it  now  surpasses 
Buenos  Aires.  The  city  located  in  the  Province  of  Santa 
Fe  is  on  a  bluff  above  the  Parana  River,  along  which  an  ex- 
pensive system  of  docks  has  been  arranged,  the  new  port 
extending  over  two  miles  with  a  minimum  depth  at  the 
wharves  of  25  feet.  Separate  wharves  for  ocean  and  for 
coasting  steamers  are  provided,  elevators,  depots  under  the 
wharves  for  30,000  tons  of  cereals,  chutes  from  warehouses 
on  the  bank,  all  kinds  of  needed  machinery,  depots  for  gen- 
eral goods,  flour  mills,  a  sugar  refinery,  and  railway  connec- 
tion with  all  of  the  different  lines.  Port  extensions  costing 
$3,000,000  include  a  sea  wall  1640  feet  long,  warehouses, 
railway  lines,  and  loading  apparatus.  The  production  of 
$75,000,000  worth  of  sugar  is  evidence  of  prosperity.  In 
other  parts  of  the  city  are  factories  of  various  kinds.  Four 
railroads  centering  here  afford  direct  communication  with 
other  Provinces.  Of  course  the  second  city  of  Argentina 
has  all  the  conveniences  of  a  place  of  its  size,  population 
317,000,  in  the  way  of  fine  buildings,  hotels,  clubs,  parks, 
theatres,  banks,  etc. 

Parana,  capital  of  Entre  Rios,  310  miles  from  Buenos 
Aires  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Parana  River,  is  the  next  con- 
siderable city;  its  port,  Bajada  Grande,  a  little  below,  has 
some  local  industries  and  trade  in  agricultural  and  pastoral 
products. 

Santa  Fe,  capital  of  that  Province,  though  far  smaller 
and  less  commercial  than  Rosario,  was  founded  before 
Buenos  Aires  by  Juan  de  Garay,  seven  miles  up  the  small 
stream  Quiloaza,  at  a  time  when  a  quieter  port  for  their 
small  vessels  seemed  more  desirable  than  the  great  river, 
which  at  Rosario  is  20  miles  wide.  An  important  railway 
centre,  its  port  is  Colastine,  opposite  to  Parana,  and  acces- 
sible to  ocean  steamers. 

Corrientes,  population  30,000,  is  a  rather  old  fashioned 
quiet  town  in  a  sheep  raising  district,  with  some  cattle;  the 


306  THE  EAST  COAST 

last  port  on  its  left  bank  before  the  turn  of  the  river,  which 
beyond  is  called  the  Alto  Parana.  Sailing  straight  north 
one  is  on  the  Paraguay,  up  which  the  larger  steamers  go 
to  Asuncion.  The  upper  Parana  though  broad  is  much  shal- 
lower, accordingly  at  Corrientes  smaller  steamers  are  taken 
for  Posadas  36  hours  distant.  The  Aripe  Rapids,  145  miles 
up,  also  make  these  necessary.  Above  Posadas,  boats  of 
still  lighter  draft  are  used  for  the  three  days'  sail  to  the 
Iguassu,  where  a  landing  for  the  Falls  is  made  at  Puerto 
Aiguirre,  a  mile  up  the  river.  The  boats  continue  up  the 
Parana  beyond  the  northern  extremity  of  Argentina  to  the 
Falls  of  La  Guayra. 

Continuing  north  from  Corrientes  up  the  Paraguay,  the 
mouth  of  the  Bermejo  is  soon  passed  and  at  Asuncion  the 
mouth  of  the  Pilcomayo  is  reached,  the  northern  boundary 
of  this  part  of  Argentina,  the  Territory  of  Formosa.  The 
lower  large  tributary,  the  Bermejo,  separating  Formosa 
from  the  Chaco,  has  recently  been  made  navigable  by  clear- 
ing the  banks  and  cleaning  the  river  bed,  so  that  with  one 
transshipment  traffic  may  be  carried  on  for  450  miles.  The 
journey  requires  three  weeks;  but  Villa  Embarcacion,  an 
important  centre  of  trade  on  the  border  of  Bolivia  was  thus 
made  accessible  by  water,  the  town  already  having  rail  con- 
nection with  Jujuy  and  Salta,  and  being  but  15  miles  from 
Oran,  another  important  terminus.  Tropical  products,  as 
sugar,  cotton,  and  fruit,  are  of  value,  and  oil  from  Bolivia. 
The  native  population  of  El  Chaco  is  estimated  at  25,000 
Indians  of  various  tribes;  as  many  more  in  Formosa.  The 
forest  covered  plains  are  not  thoroughly  explored,  some  per- 
sons having  lost  their  lives  in  the  attempt;  several  are 
known  to  have  been  murdered  in  1900  and  1902.  Aside 
from  these  rivers  there  is  little  steamboat  service  in  the 
interior. 

The  Plata  Basin,  in  size  and  flow  of  water  second  in  the 
world,  and  now  in  economic  importance  surpassing  the 
Amazon,  includes  also  the  Uruguay  River  which  separates 


ARGENTINA  307 

the  two  Republics,  serving  both  for  a  considerable  distance. 
The  Uruguay,  formed  by  several  streams  which  rise  in  the 
Serra  do  Mar  of  Brazil,  has  a  length  of  800  miles.  It  is 
navigable  for  ocean  steamers  100  miles  to  the  falls  at  Con- 
cordia  and  Salta,  above  these  for  smaller  craft.  Steamers 
of  the  Mihanovich  Line  from  Buenos  Aires,  after  crossing 
the  Plata  enter  the  rather  muddy  Uruguay.  Passing  on  the 
right  the  town  of  Fray  Bentos  in  Uruguay,  the  first  port  of 
consequence  in  Argentina  is  Concepcion  del  Uruguay,  a 
stock  raising  centre  near  which  are  large  estancias,  some 
devoted  to  pure  blooded,  others  to  crossed  stock.  Nine  of 
these  estates  cover  370,000  acres,  with  hardly  1200  devoted 
to  agriculture.  Concordia,  population  25,000,  a  little  below 
the  Falls,  is  an  important  railway  junction  with  good  harbor 
accommodations,  flour  mills,  elevators,  etc.,  exporting 
wheat,  cattle,  hides,  wool,  linseed,  mate,  and  quebracho. 

RAILWAYS 

The  railway  system  of  Argentina  is  developed  to  a  greater 
extent  than  that  of  any  other  South  American  country, 
largely  due  to  the  opportunity  for  easy  construction  pre- 
sented by  its  great  plains.  The  land  transportation  is  com- 
plicated, as  there  is  a  real  network  of  railways  centering  at 
Buenos  Aires  besides  smaller  centres  at  Bahia  Blanca,  Ro- 
sario,  and  Santa  Fe;  other  cities  are  at  points  of  junction 
of  several  lines;  the  most  important  of  these  will  be  men- 
tioned. The  railways  have  an  extension  of  22,720  miles, 
about  4000  of  which  are  Government  owned,  18,000  of 
private  capital,  670  provincial,  and  600  of  industrial 
railways. 

The  first  railway  line  in  Argentina,  six  miles  long,  was 
constructed  in  1857.  The  first  of  importance,  246  miles, 
from  Rosario  to  Cordoba,  was  built  by  Wm.  Wheelwright 
in  the  6o's.  January  ist,  1918,  about  22,500  miles  of  rail- 
way were  open  to  traffic,  with  other  mileage  in  construe- 


308  THE  EAST  COAST 

tion.  The  careful  policy  pursued  in  Argentina  during  this 
development  has  prevented  the  great  evils  experienced  in 
the  United  States  of  local  land  booms  and  town  lot  specu- 
lations. Large  investments  in  railways  have  been  made  by 
European  countries,  especially  by  Great  Britain,  which  has 
about  $i,ooo,ooo,cxx)  so  placed,  and  France  the  next  smaller 
sum.  The  value  of  the  privately  owned  lines  is  $1,220,000,- 
ooo,  while  that  of  the  Government  owned  is  $150,000,000. 
In  1915  the  equipment  included  7000  locomotives,  6300  pas- 
senger cars,  160,000  freight  and  service  cars.  The  density 
of  traffic  in  Buenos  Aires  is  shown  from  the  fact  that  500 
passenger  trains  daily  leave  the  city.  Instead  of  taxes  the 
railways  pay  the  Government  3  per  cent  of  the  net  receipts, 
which  is  spent  on  making  roads  to  the  railway  stations  and 
bridges;  60  per  cent  is  allowed  for  expenses.  If  above  17 
per  cent  profit  is  made  by  a  company  in  three  successive 
years  the  Government  has  a  right  to  lower  the  rates.  The 
railways  may  build  branch  lines  47  miles  long  without 
special  permission,  if  they  do  not  run  within  l2l/2  miles 
of  another  road.  Several  roads  have  constructed  irrigation 
works  along  their  lines,  for  which  they  receive  Government 
5  per  cent  bonds  at  par.  In  1917  an  increase  of  rates  of  22 
per  cent  was  allowed  by  the  Government  to  cover  extra 
operation  costs. 

The  Central  Argentina  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  railways,  serving  the  chief  cities  of  north  and  central 
Argentina,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario,  Cordoba,  Santa  Fe,  Tu- 
cuman, etc.,  and  some  of  the  best  agricultural  lands  of  the 
country.  It  has  the  finest  railway  station  and  terminal  in 
South  America,  the  Retire,  and  a  mileage  of  3300.  The 
main  line,  extending  720  miles  to  Tucuman,  crosses  the  Prov- 
inces of  Buenos  Aires,  Santa  Fe,  Santiago  del  Estero,  and 
Tucuman;  there  are  branches  in  these  Provinces  and  in 
Cordoba.  Elaborate  extensions  planned,  but  suspended  on 
account  of  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  will  doubtless  be  carried 
out  before  long.  On  acount  of  heavy  suburban  traffic  the 


ARGENTINA  809 

lines  for  17  miles  out  of  Buenos  Aires  have  been  electrified 
by  a  third  rail.  Two  thousand  passenger  trains  a  week  are 
handled  at  the  station  and  9,000,000  passengers  annually. 
Through  express  service  is  maintained,  and  connection  is 
made  with  the  Government  Line  to  the  Bolivia  frontier  at 
La  Quiaca.  In  1913  about  22,000,000  passengers  were  car- 
ried ;  9,000,000  tons  of  freight  are  handled,  2,000,000  head  of 
cattle,  and  other  live  stock.  Aside  from  the  stock  the  chief 
freight  is  cereals,  but  sugar,  timber,  wool,  hides,  hay,  and 
lime  are  also  carried. 

The  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern  Railway,  equally  im- 
portant, with  the  longest  mileage,  operates  about  3800  miles 
of  road.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the  mileage  is  in  the  province 
of  Buenos  Aires,  serving  the  important  cities  of  La  Plata, 
capital  of  the  province,  Mar  del  Plata,  the  famous  shore 
resort,  the  port,  Bahia  Blanca,  etc.  The  freight  station  is 
the  largest  in  South  America  with  storage  capacity  for 
230,000  bags  of  grain  and  2000  tons  of  other  freight.  A  line 
goes  west  from  Bahia  Blanca  through  northern  Patagonia 
to  Neuquen  and  Senilossa,  480  miles,  which  is  handling  ex- 
cellent traffic  especially  in  cattle.  Important  irrigation 
works  have  been  made  by  the  railway  in  the  Rio  Negro  and 
Neuquen  Valleys.  The  road  has  a  terminus  in  Plaza  Con- 
stitucion,  Buenos  Aires,  where  35  trains  daily,  including 
express  and  de  luxe,  serve  25-30  million  passengers  in  nor- 
mal years.  In  1913  besides  6,500,000  head  of  live  stock  the 
road  transported  1,800,000  tons  of  wheat,  1,000,000  of  corn, 
227,000  of  potatoes,  920,000  of  lime  and  stone,  and  2,500,000 
general  freight. 

The  Buenos  Aires  and  Pacific,  an  ambitious  and  adven- 
turous road,  has  nearly  equal  mileage,  3535,  some  of  which 
are  leased.  As  its  name  implies,  it  operates  the  main  part 
of  the  only  transcontinental  line  of  South  America.  In 
addition  to  the  cross  country  line  from  Buenos  Aires  to 
Mendoza,  and  beyond  that,  the  Argentine  section  of  the 
Trans- Andine,  in  miles  to  the  Chilian  Line  midway  of  the 


310  THE  EAST  COAST 

tunnel,  amounting  with  branches  to  1000  miles,  the  Com- 
pany has  acquired  by  lease  and  construction  the  Bahia 
Blanca  and  North  Western  Railway,  now  extended  to  Men- 
doza,  with  branches,  a  length  of  900  miles.  From  Bahia 
Blanca  a  line  called  the  Patagonas  Extension  has  been  con- 
structed 167  miles  to  Carmen  de  Patagonas  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Negro,  giving  access  to  northern  Patagonia.  Land 
is  being  irrigated  with  water  from  the  Colorado  River  in  the 
effort  to  attract  colonists.  It  is  a  property  which  has  been 
extended  too  rapidly  to  pay  dividends  at  the  moment,  but  of 
an  assured  future.  On  the  North  Western  Railway  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  wine,  maize,  cattle,  sheep,  and  general  merchan- 
dise are  the  freight ;  the  passenger  business  is  small  in  com- 
parison. 

The  Buenos  Aires  Western  Railway  is  fourth  in  im- 
portance, with  1870  miles  of  track  extending  from  the  Once 
Station,  on  the  Buenos  Aires  subway  in  the  heart  of  the 
city,  to  sections  of  La  Pampa  and  San  Luis;  primarily  a 
freight  road,  it  now  carries  many  passengers.  Electricity  is 
used  for  suburban  traffic.  By  tunnel  from  the  Once  station, 
freight  is  carried  to  the  port,  being  by  so  much  ahead  of  New 
York.  With  the  Great  Southern,  the  Western  has  leased 
the  Midland  Railway  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Carhue,  320 
miles.  In  1912-13  the  road  carried  over  7,000,000  head  of 
live  stock,  nearly  3,000,000  tons  of  freight,  and  1,000,000 
passengers.  Wheat,  maize,  hay,  and  other  agricultural  prod- 
ucts are  the  bulk  of  the  freight. 

The  Cordoba  Central,  operating  1200  miles,  is  an  amal- 
gamation of  several  lines  extending  from  that  city,  one  now 
reaching  Buenos  Aires,  one  to  San  Francisco  connecting 
with  Santa  Fe  and  Rosario  lines,  and  another  to  Tucuman, 
there  connecting  with  the  Government  owned  road,  the  Cen- 
tral Northern  Railway,  to  the  frontier.  It  is  hoped  that  the 
small  mileage  lacking  in  Bolivia  will  soon  be  completed, 
when,  as  the  gauge  is  the  same,  it  will  be  possible  to 


ARGENTINA  311 

operate  through  cars  from  La  Paz  to  Buenos  Aires.  The 
sugar  lands  of  the  north  are  now  traversed  by  this  road, 
sugar  and  cereals  being  important  freight. 

The  Entre  Rios  Railway  is  a  part  of  the  through  rail 
route  to  Asuncion,  Paraguay,  beginning  at  Ibicuy  on  the 
Parana  River  where  it  is  connected  with  the  Buenos  Aires 
Central  by  ferry,  that  road  bringing  the  trains  from  Buenos 
Aires.  The  road,  about  800  miles  long,  has  the  standard 
gauge,  4  feet  8^2  inches. 

The  Argentina  North  East  Railway,  in  which  the  pre- 
ceding is  largely  interested,  extends  through  Entre  Rios, 
Corrientes,  and  a  bit  of  Misiones  to  Posadas,  forming 
another  part  of  the  road  to  Asuncion.  It  has  750  miles  of 
the  same  gauge.  On  account  of  the  war  and  decrease  in 
traffic,  difficulties  were  experienced;  but  in  1917-18  there 
was  great  improvement,  the  cattle  transport  breaking  all 
records,  and  oranges  becoming  an  important  item.  By 
means  of  a  ferry  across  the  Alto  Parana  River  from  Posadas 
to  Encarnacion  there  is  through  service  with  sleeping  and 
dining  cars  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Asuncion,  on  account  of 
which  travel  has  greatly  increased  as  well  as  shipment  of 
freight 

The  last  three  railways  with  several  French  roads  were 
in  1912  incorporated  under  the  name  of  the  Argentine  Rail- 
way, a  Maine  corporation,  but  on  account  of  difficulties  from 
the  War,  receivers  were  afterward  appointed.  All  of  the 
railways  mentioned  are  British  owned,  mostly  of  broad 
gauge,  5^  feet.  One  more  is  the  Central  Railway  of  the 
Chubut  Company  from  Port  Madryn  to  Trelaw,  about  50 
miles,  a  section  settled  chiefly  by  the  Welsh.  They  plan 
to  carry  the  road  across  to  the  Andean  foothills. 

While  the  investments  of  the  British  are  far  larger,  the 
French  also  saw  here  an  opportunity  and  financed  several 
railways. 

The  Province  of  Santa  Fe  Railway  is  the  most  impor- 


312  THE  EAST  COAST 

tant,  with  1200  miles  of  line  and  extensions  planned  to 
Asuncion ; 

The  Province  of  Buenos  Aires  Railway  with  800  miles 
has  a  line  to  Rosario,  and  one  to  the  coal  docks  and  wharves 
of  the  port  of  La  Plata ;  and 

The  Rosario  to  Puerto  Belgrano,  on  Bahia  Blanca,  500 
miles  long,  is  of  broad  gauge  with  the  idea  of  exchanging 
freight  with  the  British  lines;  the  other  two  lines  are  of  one 
metre. 

The  Buenos  Aires  Central  is  a  locally  controlled  road 
operating  250  miles  including  an  important  section  from 
Buenos  Aires  to  Zarate,  where  ferry  connection  is  made  with 
lines  already  spoken  of  to  Asuncion. 

The  War  greatly  affected  conditions  in  Argentina,  but 
previously  the  British-owned  roads  had  made  good  re- 
turns besides  giving  work  to  many  British  both  in  Argen- 
tina and  at  home;  as  the  rails,  rolling  stock,  and  coal  are 
all  British.  Trade  has  naturally  followed  the  invested 
dollar. 

The  Government  Railways  have  been  constructed  under 
a  comprehensive  plan  chiefly  to  promote  settlement  in  out- 
lying districts  and  to  develop  fertile  territory.  Deficits  have 
resulted,  but  recently  improvements  have  been  shown  in 
decreasing  expenses  and  increase  of  gross  receipts. 

The  Central  Northern  is  an  important  road  for  tourists 
and  business  men,  a  metre  gauge  running  from  Santa  Fe 
by  Tucuman,  Jujuy,  and  Negra  Muerta  to  La  Quiaca  on  the 
frontier.  It  has  branches  extending  to  Resistencia,  capital 
of  El  Chaco,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Parana ;  and  to  Santiago 
del  Estero,  to  Salta,  and  to  Embarcacion,  the  last,  it  is  hoped,  to 
be  extended  to  Yacuiba  and  ultimately  to  Santa  Cruz  of  the 
Bolivian  Oriente.  The  road  to  La  Quiaca  passes  a  height 
of  12,000  feet,  the  terminus  being  above  11,000.  Salta,  the 
terminus  of  another  branch,  is  6000  feet  lower ;  Embarcacion 
is  lower  still,  on  a  navigable  stream,  the  Bermejo.  To  this 


ARGENTINA  313 

point  the  Government  is  building  a  road  from  Formosa  on 
the  Paraguay  River  to  open  up  that  Territory;  186  of  the 
437  miles  are  already  completed.  This  rich  country  now 
occupied  by  savages  will  then  be  a  source  of  wealth.  A 
road  running  northeast  from  Diamante,  Entre  Rios,  when 
finished  will  open  a  rich  territory;  106  miles  are  now  in 
operation. 

The  Patagonian  Railways  will  make  accessible  a  large 
region  which  is  well  worth  while.  Plans  call  for  over  1200 
miles  of  road,  560  of  which  are  now  open  and  showing  in- 
crease of  earnings.  One  line  from  San  Antonio  on  the  Gulf 
of  San  Matias  to  Lake  Nahuel  Huapi  at  San  Carlos  de 
Bariloche  is  just  completed,  nearly  300  miles.  From  the 
Lake  it  may  be  carried  over  the  mountains  to  connect  with 
the  Chilian  Railways  at  Osorno.  Another  road  is  building 
from  Comodoro  Rivadavia  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  George  to 
Lake  Buenos  Aires,  now  complete  to  Colonia  Sarmiento,  122 
miles.  An  important  line  running  more  north  and  south 
has  been  begun  and  opened  176  miles  from  Port  Deseado  in 
Santa  Cruz  to  Colonia  Las  Heras,  following  up  the  Deseado 
River,  later  crossing  the  railway  from  Comodoro  Rivadavia 
and  going  on  towards  Nahuel  Huapi,  to  the  terminus  of 
these  lines.  A  road  is  planned  from  Puerto  Gallegos  to 
Chile,  84  miles  towards  Punta  Arenas  with  a  branch  north 
to  the  Puerto  Deseado  Railway.  A  narrow  gauge  is  talked 
of  from  San  Julian,  half  way  up  the  coast  toward  Puerto 
Deseado,  to  the  Chilian  boundary  with  one  branch  to  Lake 
Argentina,  the  other  to  Lake  Buenos  Aires. 

Other  lines  are  proposed  in  the  north :  one  from  Salta 
to  Huaytiquina  on  the  Chilian  border,  190  miles,  to  cost 
20,000,000  pesos  (if  paper,  $8,800,000)  ;  this  Chile  is  expected 
to  continue  to  Antofagasta;  one  on  the  other  side  of  the 
country,  from  Candelaria  in  Misiones,  where  a  port  is  to  be 
made  on  the  Alto  Parana,  will  go  northeast  to  ports  on  the 
Uruguay,  connecting  the  two  rivers  with  625  miles  of  light 
railway.  An  industrial  railway  is  expected  from  Goya  or 


314  THE  EAST  COAST 

Reconquista  through  the  quebracho  forest  to  the  western 
part  of  Santiago  del  Estero. 

An  aeroplane  service  for  mail  and  passengers  has  been 
organized  to  go  from  Bahia  Blanca  to  Puerto  Gallegos,  mak- 
ing ten  stops  en  route. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
ARGENTINA:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

The  chief  sources  of  the  wealth  of  Argentina  are  familiar 
to  everyone  with  any  knowledge  of  world  affairs:  cattle 
and  agriculture.  Stock  raising  is  said  to  comprise  about  50 
per  cent  of  the  wealth.  According  to  the  census  of  1914 
its  value  of  $8,000,000,000,  including  land,  animals,  and 
machinery,  was  just  about  that.  The  animals  were  esti- 
mated at  V/2  billion,  the  land  and  fixed  installations  at  6 
billions.  In  stock  of  various  kinds,  Argentina  is  fifth  in  the 
world :  with  6  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  cattle,  she  is 
third  in  sheep  with  8  per  cent,  fourth  in  horses  with  4  per 
cent,  fifth  in  goats  with  4  per  cent,  and  eighth  in  pork  with 
1.2  per  cent. 

LIVE  STOCK 

Cattle.  As  to  be  expected,  the  live  stock  industry  came 
first,  requiring  less  labor.  The  early  development  was  a 
natural  one,  cattle  roaming  freely  over  the  plains  and  mul- 
tiplying. From  these  wild  herds,  descendants  of  those 
brought  over  by  early  colonists,  one  could  take  all  he  wished 
up  to  10,000-12,000  head,  or  more  with  permission  from  the 
Governor.  But  within  the  last  40  years  much  blooded  stock 
has  been  imported  from  Europe,  and  scientific  breeding  has 
been  practised.  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  stock  was  esti- 
mated as  worth  $200,000,000.  Of  great  value  to  the  in- 
dustry was  the  founding  of  the  Argentina  Rural  Society  in 
1866;  further,  the  discovery  of  the  preservation  of  meat  at 
freezing,  and  the  arrangements  for  the  transport  of  chilled 

315 


316  THE  EAST  COAST 

meat.  The  numerous  Stock  Shows  greatly  contributed  to 
improvements.  Beginning  at  Palermo,  Buenos  Aires,  in 
1858,  these  have  for  many  years  been  held  there  annually; 
others  at  various  centres  as  at  Rosario,  Bahia  Blanca,  Santa 
Fe,  Concordia,  etc. 

On  the  pampas  all  over  the  country  cattle  and  sheep  are 
raised,  though  areas  are  still  open  in  less  favorable  or  ac- 
cessible districts.  Further  increase  especially  of  cattle  will 
depend  to  some  extent  on  the  improvement  of  more  pasture 
lands  by  the  cultivation  of  alfalfa  and  other  pasturage.  The 
utility  of  alfalfa,  both  as  improving  the  land  for  wheat  and 
as  food  for  cattle  was  early  recognized.  Its  introduction 
was  a  boon  to  raisers  of  stock  including  horses,  the  alfalfa 
growing  on  brackish  lands  formerly  thought  useless,  as 
well  as  on  wheat  lands.  On  the  largest  estancias  20,000-50,000 
acres  are  sometimes  given  to  artificial  pasturage  chiefly  alfalfa. 
This  valuable  forage  to  which  20,000,000  acres  are  devoted 
gives  3-4  crops  a  year,  6-8  tons  to  the  acre. 

A  great  advance  in  the  quality  of  the  stock  naturally  fol- 
lowed the  importation  between  1901-14  of  pedigreed  ani- 
mals, some  at  fancy  prices :  $18,000  for  a  bull,  several  horses 
at  $150,000  or  more  each;  altogether  13,000  cattle,  35,000 
sheep,  6000  horses,  3000  pigs,  worth  $14,000,000;  in  one  year 
stock  of  various  kinds  worth  $1,500,000.  Most  of  these  came 
from  England.  Durhams,  Shorthorns,  are  most  favored, 
but  many  Herefords  are  raised,  Polled  Angus,  and  other 
breeds.  As  dairy  interests  are  developing,  Durhams  are 
preferred  as  good  milkers  as  well  as  good  meat.  Of  the 
30,000,000  head  of  cattle  existing  before  the  War  (recent 
figures  are  25,900,000),  the  largest  number  was  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Buenos  Aires,  about  7,000,000,  with  Santa  Fe  and 
Cordoba  following;  millions  more  are  scattered  in  the  Prov- 
inces and  Territories  from  the  extreme  north  almost  to  the 
extreme  south.  The  export  of  live  stock  to  neighboring 
countries  has  in  peace  times  amounted  to  $9,000,000.  In 
some  districts  drought  has  been  a  drawback  to  stock  rais- 


ARGENTINA  317 

ing,  yet  it  has  been  difficult  to  convince  the  small  farmers 
of  the  desirability  of  artesian  wells.  Some  persons  have 
thought  that  as  more  land  is  irrigated  for  farming  the 
amount  of  stock  would  diminish ;  but  Martinez,  the  leading 
authority  on  such  matters,  states  that  50,000  square  leagues 
will  remain  exclusively  for  breeding.  This  extent  of  terri- 
tory will  support  40,000,000  horned  cattle  and  200,000,000 
sheep,  besides  the  millions  which  would  be  raised  in  the 
cultivated  districts  on  the  intensive  principle.  Patagonia 
has  large  regions  suited  only  for  stock  raising. 

Sheep  cannot  be  allowed  on  the  high  priced  land,  ruining 
the  alfalfa,  so  they  are  largely  relegated  to  the  outlying  dis- 
tricts and  to  Patagonia ;  but  some  high  bred  sheep  are  found 
on  model  estancias.  In  the  south  the  sheep  are  generally  of 
Falkland  and  Romney  Marsh  origin,  crossed  with  merinos ; 
they  are  large  and  fat,  weighing  about  150  pounds,  some 
over  200.  Some  proprietors  produce  fleece  of  9  pounds 
weight.  Thick,  short  wool  is  preferred,  as  frost  on  long 
wool  prevents  the  animals  moving  and  so  causes  great  mor- 
tality in  winter.  In  the  north  Lincolns  are  favored.  The 
largest  numbers  of  sheep  are  in  Buenos  Aires,  Mesopotamia, 
San  Luis,  and  Patagonia.  During  the  War  wool  was  in  great 
demand,  and  in  1916-17,  350,000  bales  were  exported,  two- 
thirds  to  the  United  States;  in  1917-18,  181,000  tons,  one 
fourth  of  which  was  washed.  Diseases  are  practically  un- 
known, and  the  increase  sometimes  reaches  112  per  cent. 
A  mortality  of  20  per  cent  is  due  to  cold  weather.  The 
number  of  sheep  in  1915  was  stated  as  80,000,000;  recent 
figures  are  43,300,000.  Some  of  the  sheep  ranches  are  very 
large,  one  in  Santa  Cruz  having  100,000  acres  fenced  in; 
others  have  50,000  acres  or  more. 

Horses  number  about  10,000,000;  Argentine  racers  are 
of  the  highest  quality,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  impor- 
tation of  high  class  blooded  stock.  Hogs  number  3,000,000, 
goats  over  4,000,000. 


318  THE  EAST  COAST 

PACKING  HOUSES 

The  frigorificos  are  famous;  extremely  important  and 
prosperous.  British  capital  was  early  invested  in  this  indus- 
try, both  cattle  raising  and  packing  houses.  In  1907  Ameri- 
can capital  began  to  turn  in  this  direction.  A  Swift  plant 
it  is  said  made  a  profit  of  35  per  cent  in  1916,  one  of  Wilson 
with  smaller  investment,  300  per  cent.  Some  plants  are 
for  canning  also;  besides  there  is  meat  extract,  flour, 
tongues,  soup,  dried  beef,  etc.,  and  by-products  such  as 
hides,  hoofs,  grease,  etc.  In  1919,  15  frigorificos  were  in 
operation,  three  in  Buenos  Aires,  two  in  La  Plata,  three 
in  Zarate,  two  in  Santa  Cruz,  and  one  each  in  Bahia  Blanca, 
General  Lopez,  Santa  Fe,  Campana,  and  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
Of  these  one  belongs  to  Armour  and  three  to  Swift;  the 
former  was  expecting  a  daily  capacity  of  2500  cattle,  5000 
sheep,  and  3000  hogs;  others  were  to  increase  production. 
During  the  War  the  demand  for  meat  as  we  know  increased. 
Normally  three-fourths  of  the  amount  exported  is  frozen 
beef,  with  mutton  next  in  quantity ;  but  in  1917  for  war  pur- 
poses canned  meat  was  nearly  half  in  weight  of  the  frozen 
beef.  The  latter  was  valued  at  $77,000,000,  the  former  at 
$37,000,000,  the  total  meat  export  at  $137,000,000.  Due  to 
millions  spent  on  pedigreed  stock,  Argentine  meat  is  of  high 
quality. 

In  nine  months  of  1918  the  export  of  stock  products, 
$365,000,000,  was  60  per  cent  of  the  total.  Of  meat  export, 
frozen  beef  was  more  than  half  and  canned  beef  a  quarter. 
Wool  both  dirty  and  washed  was  a  large  item,  also  skins 
and  fat.  Cattle  exported  on  the  hoof,  143,000  head,  were 
worth  $4,200,000.  Butter  was  a  large  item  and  cheese  con- 
siderable. From  1908  to  1914  the  increase  had  been  in 
value  116  per  cent.  In  four  months  of  1919,  1,000,000  head 
of  cattle  were  slaughtered,  1,300,000  sheep,  and  55,000  hogs; 
a  larger  number  than  in  any  corresponding  period.  The 
chief  purchasers  now  are  England,  France,  and  Italy;  but 


ARGENTINA  319 

exports  to  other  countries  are  likely  to  develop  so  that 
increase  in  stock  raising  is  desirable  and  the  prospect  excel- 
lent. The  cultivation  of  alfalfa  has  increased  the  capacity 
of  different  lands  3-25  times.  It  is  the  feeling  on  the  part 
of  some  Argentines  that  the  packing  house  industry  now 
dominated  by  foreigners  should  be  rather  in  the  hands  of 
natives;  and  it  is  hoped  that  by  eliminating  the  excessive 
profits  of  the  frigorificos,  both  stock  raiser  and  consumer 
may  receive  a  benefit. 

AGRICULTURE 

Of  late  years  agricultural  products  in  ordinary  times 
have  outstripped  stock  raising  in  value,  in  some  years  of 
good  crops  being  practically  double.  While  regarded  as 
preeminently  an  agriculture  country,  hardly  more  than  one 
twelfth  of  the  Argentine  area  is  devoted  to  the  industry 
although  over  one-third  is  arable  land,  about  250,000,000 
acres.  Yet  the  cultivated  land  has  increased  rapidly,  being 
four  times  as  large  in  1916  as  in  1872.  Thirty-five  thousand 
square  miles  are  annually  offered  for  sale.  The  average 
area  of  62,000,000  acres  of  cultivated  land  varies  by  2,000,000 
— 3,000,000  from  year  to  year.  Of  such  land  one-third  is  in  the 
Province  of  Buenos  Aires,  one- fourth  in  Santa  Fe,  one- 
fifth  in  Cordoba,  with  Pampa  Central,  Entre  Rios,  San  Luis, 
and  other  sections  following  in  rapidly  diminishing  scale. 
While  the  area  of  wheat  and  linseed  doubled,  that  of  corn 
quadrupled,  and  of  oats  increased  30- fold;  yet  wheat  is  a 
long  leader.  The  chief  products  cultivated  are  wheat,  corn, 
flax,  oats,  barley,  alfalfa,  sugar  cane,  and  the  vine.  Others 
of  importance  are  tobacco,  cotton,  peanuts,  potatoes,  veg- 
etables, yerba  mate,  mandioca,  fruits,  etc.  In  1916  over 
2,000,000  tons  of  wheat,  and  nearly  3,000,000  of  corn  were 
exported  with  some  linseed,  oats,  and  barley.  In  1919-20 
there  was  a  decrease  in  acreage  sown  to  wheat  and  corn, 
but  a  slight  increase  in  linseed.  A  wheat  crop  of  5,000,000 


320  THE  EAST  COAST 

tons  is  expected  for  1921  with  3,200,000  for  export;  of  lin- 
seed 1,000,000  tons. 

Wheat.  Over  24,000,000  acres  are  devoted  to  its  culture. 
Although  the  soil  is  famed  for  its  fertility  the  average  yield 
is  not  very  high,  about  II  bushels  an  acre.  One  writer 
gives  23  bushels  as  the  average  in  Mendoza  with  one  prop- 
erty producing  50  bushels.  The  climate  is  sufficiently  agree- 
able, but  in  some  years  the  rainfall  is  inadequate,  and 
occasionally  a  visitation  of  locusts  seriously  affects  the 
crops,  destroying  those  in  some  districts;  but  the  regions 
are  so  extensive  that  all  cannot  be  affected  at  the  same 
time. 

Extensive  farming  is  beginning  to  give  way  to  intensive, 
especially  near  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  where  land  values 
are  now  very  high.  Argentine  authorities  state  that  in  gen- 
eral a  great  improvement  in  farming  methods  is  imperative. 
Hundreds  of  large  estates  are  owned  by  Argentines,  while 
British  investments  in  cattle  and  agricultural  lands  prob- 
ably amount  to  $50,000,000.  Only  30  per  cent  of  the  estates 
are  cultivated  by  their  owners.  Rentals  of  lease  holders 
are  usually  so  short  and  uncertain  that  they  suffer  many 
embarrassments  and  lack  ambition  to  install  desirable  im- 
provements, to  plant  orchards,  etc. ;  a  situation  which  must 
be  remedied  to  attain  permanent  prosperity.  The  Argentine 
leaders  realize  that  instruction  is  needed  to  show  the  impor- 
tance of  varied  cultivation,  of  rotation  in  crops,  of  including 
some  stock  raising,  and  on  other  matters.  Better  credit 
arrangements  are  suggested  and  other  benefits,  one  of  which 
has  been  noted  in  connection  with  the  countries  farther 
north,  the  use  of  fibre  plants  to  make  their  own  bags,  thus 
saving  a  vast  outlay  for  the  importation  of  such  needed 
articles. 

Linseed  is  an  important  and  lucrative  production  al- 
though the  fibre  is  generally  burned.  This  might  be  utilized 
for  paper,  and  better  varieties  may  be  introduced  to 
advantage. 


ARGENTINA  321 

Cotton,  it  is  thought,  will  soon  be  cultivated  on  a  large 
scale.  Much  progress  has  been  made  in  the  last  decade, 
and  nearly  40,000  acres  are  now  devoted  to  its  culture,  most 
of  them  in  the  Chaco,  a  few  less  than  5000  in  Corrientes, 
Misiones,  and  Formosa.  Regions  in  Salta,  La  Rioja,  San- 
tiago del  Estero,  Jujuy,  Tucuman,  and  Catamarca  are  also 
adapted  to  its  growth,  but  especially  sections  near  the 
Parana  River  and  its  tributaries,  altogether  nearly  350,000 
square  miles.  Capital  and  labor  are  wanting,  but  as  little 
machinery  is  required,  less  capital  is  needed  for  this  industry 
than  for  most  others.  Most  of  the  region  is  favorable  for 
river  transport.  The  cotton  raised  is  of  good  quality,  classed 
as  Strict  good,  Middling,  or  Fully  good  or  Middling;  fine 
and  silky,  over  an  inch  in  length.  Several  varieties  are 
cultivated.  Land  is  about  $20  an  acre.  The  production  in 
1920-21  is  expected  to  be  75  per  cent  more  than  in  1919-20 
and  nearly  seven  times  that  of  four  years  ago.  It  is  hoped 
that  within  a  few  years  Argentina  will  provide  cotton  for 
the  great  manufacturing  nations;  also  that  cotton  gins  will 
be  supplied,  and  factories  for  developing  the  by-products, 
oil,  etc.,  as  also  for  the  cotton  itself.  Cotton  gins  already 
exist  in  Resistencia  and  several  colonies,  where  2000  tons 
have  been  seeded. 

Sugar  is  an  important  production  in  the  north,  especially 
in  the  Province  of  Tucuman,  which  contains  about  85  per 
cent  of  the  250,000  acres  devoted  to  sugar  in  1913,  9  per  cent 
being  in  Jujuy.  The  largest  amount  ever  produced  was  in 
1914,  about  336,000  tons.  In  1913  over  3,000,000  tons  of  cane 
were  ground  to  produce  275,000  tons  of  sugar,  an  average 
of  8.8  per  cent,  in  Jujuy  a  trifle  more.  Later  production  fell, 
in  1917  to  80,000  tons,  but  rose  in  1919  to  250,000,  of  which 
Tucuman  produced  178,000  from  2,500,000  tons  of  cane. 
The  average  yield  is  under  12  tons  per  acre.  Java  cane  has 
lately  been  introduced,  which  will  undoubtedly  produce 
more  than  double  the  cane  to  the  acre  now  obtained  from 
the  native.  Much  more  land  is  suited  to  its  growth  and  the 


THE  EAST  COAST 

country  might  be  self-sustaining  in  this  line,  as  it  has  been 
one  or  two  years  and  also  have  some  to  export.  Of  the 
39  sugar  mills  and  refineries  in  the  country,  27  are  in  Tucu- 
man, the  rest  in  Santa  Fe,  Corrientes,  Salta,  Jujuy,  Chaco, 
and  the  Capital.  Two  are  refineries  only,  these  in  Rosario 
and  Buenos  Aires;  nine  refine  part  of  their  production,  the 
rest  are  sugar  mills  only.  The  greatest  capacity  of  the 
mills  is  417,000  tons,  of  the  refineries  150,400  tons.  About 
15,000  persons  are  employed  in  the  industry,  at  some  seasons 
over  40,000.  Several  foreign  companies  are  engaged  and 
several  local,  which  have  paid  good  dividends.  In  the  entire 
industry  about  $100,000,000  is  invested,  of  which  Americans 
are  said  to  have  10  per  cent.  The  erection  of  two  sugar 
beet  factories  is  considered. 

Rice  culture,  like  that  of  cotton,  has  been  developed  in 
the  last  decade,  as  yet  in  few  sections  although  most  of  the 
country  north  of  Buenos  Aires  has  many  marshy  tracts 
suitable  to  its  growth.  Of  25,000  acres  planted  in  1918-19 
Tucuman  had  13,000,  Misiones  one-fourth  as  much,  Salta, 
Jujuy,  and  elsewhere  the  remainder.  In  Tucuman  the  harvest 
is  most  plentiful,  about  1250  pounds  to  the  acre.  More  than 
three  times  the  area  should  be  planted  to  supply  the  country, 
and  a  superfluity  could  be  exported. 

Tobacco  has  long  been  cultivated  though  not  largely, 
40,000  acres  in  1895;  but  there  was  a  gradual  decrease 
until  recently,  when  production  has  been  augmented  almost 
to  earlier  figures.  Corrientes,  Salta,  and  Misiones  seem 
best  adapted  to  its  growth.  In  1917  over  2,000,000  pounds 
were  exported  worth  $500,000.  A  large  and  good  use  for 
nicotine  is  for  pastoral  and  agricultural  washes. 

Vineyards.  The  climate  and  soil  of  Catamarca,  Rioja, 
San  Juan,  Mendoza,  and  Neuquen  are  excellently  adapted 
for  grape  culture,  and  many  varieties  flourish  of  native  and 
European  grapes,  but  the  great  rise  of  freight  rates  inter- 
feres with  sending  the  fruit  to  the  Buenos  Aires  market  for 
consumption.  As  a  pound  of  grapes  in  Buenos  Aires  costs 


ARGENTINA  323 

15  times  as  much  as  the  fruit  grower  receives,  the  fruit 
has  become  a  luxury  for  the  rich.  The  making  of  wine  is 
therefore  the  chief  industry  of  Mendoza,  where  1500  bodegas 
or  wine  cellars  of  varying  style  and  capacity  exist,  some, 
models  of  their  kind.  Some  15  of  these  have  cost  about 
$500,000  each,  but  the  more  common  type  numbering  1000 
have  a  value  of  $50,000-$  100,000.  An  excellent  quality  of  light 
wine  is  made  for  consumption  in  the  country.  The  Province 
of  San  Juan  also  contains  extensive  vineyards  and  expensive 
bodegas.  At  least  3000  establishments  are  yearly  in  opera- 
tion. About  il/2  billion  pounds  of  grapes  are  used  to  obtain 
500  million  litres  of  wine  (a  68  per  cent  return)  of  which 
400,000,000  come  from  Mendoza.  A  great  future  for  the 
industry  is  expected  unless  prohibition  becomes  world  wide. 
Fruit  of  semi-tropical  and  temperate  zones  is  increas- 
ingly cultivated,  all  varieties  in  the  various  sections,  but 
in  insufficient  quantities.  In  Chubut  apples,  pears,  plums, 
cherries,  and  ordinary  berries  of  the  best  quality  are  raised ; 
but  much  fruit  is  imported  from  Chile  with  some  from 
Europe  and  the  United  States. 

FORESTRY 

The  development  of  forestry  is  slight  and  the  importa- 
tion of  timber  for  building  and  furniture  is  large;  yet  the 
country  contains  all  that  is  needed,  and  by  planting  under 
favorable  conditions  might  have  much  more. 

Quebracho.  In  the  subtropical  country,  which  is  the 
entire  north  aside  from  the  mountains,  the  most  valuable 
wood  is  the  quebracho,  of  two  varieties,  red  and  white. 
The  tree  takes  90-100  years  to  reach  maturity,  with  a  height 
of  80  feet  and  a  diameter  of  about  2.^/2  feet.  Logs  are 
exported  for  the  extraction  of  tannin,  though  tannin  is 
extracted  locally  in  increasing  quantities,  and  shipped.  The 
wood  is  much  employed  by  the  railways  for  sleepers  as  it 
does  not  decay  from  standing  in  water.  Lately,  owing  to 


324  THE  EAST  COAST 

shortage  of  coal  much  has  been  used  in  locomotives  for 
fuel,  and  some  for  manufactories.  Formerly  Great  Britain 
was  the  principal  purchaser,  but  of  late  the  United  States 
has  taken  the  most.  In  1915  over  $15,000,000  worth  of 
extract  was  exported  and  $2,500,000  of  logs.  Quebracho, 
break-axe,  is  of  course  extremely  hard,  but  there  are  other 
hard  woods  like  cedar,  and  many  varieties  of  valuable 
timber. 

Yerba  mate  is  cultivated  in  many  places,  especially  in 
Misiones;  the  wild  growing  trees  of  the  forest  furnish  a 
still  greater  supply  of  the  leaves.  From  these  a  drink  is 
made  which  outside  of  the  large  cities  is  in  this  part  of 
the  continent  far  more  popular  than  tea  or  coffee. 

The  northern  forests  contain  several  varieties  of  rubber 
trees,  but  none  are  exploited.  Along  the  Andes  are  forests, 
the  principal  ones  from  Lake  Nahuel  Huapi  south.  Those 
in  this  region  are  believed  to  be  worth  $10,000,000,000.  The 
variety  of  native  woods  both  hard  and  soft  is  large;  and 
trees  of  other  countries  have  been  introduced.  Thousands 
of  eucalyptus  trees  have  been  planted  on  many  estandas, 
serving  a  useful  purpose  in  many  ways,  beside  being  an 
ornament  on  the  level  plain. 

MINING 

In  the  description  of  the  Provinces,  mention  has  been 
made  of  the  minerals  existing  in  various  localities,  but  up 
to  the  present  time  the  working  of  these  has  been  slight. 
Tungsten,  gold,  copper,  wolfram,  borax,  and  petroleum  have 
received  the  most  attention,  but  few  are  those  who  have 
realized  any  considerable  profits.  Within  ten  years  the 
exports  have  amounted  to  hardly  more  than  $3,000,000. 

Gold  is  mined  in  small  quantities  in  various  places;  in 
southern  Patagonia  it  is  gathered  from  the  coast  sands 
after  a  heavy  sea  storm.  In  Neuquen  and  Catamarca  are 
workings  of  fair  size.  The  copper  deposits  of  the  Andes 


ARGENTINA  325 

are  difficult  of  access  but  may  be  developed  later.  Silver 
was  mined  formerly,  but  the  ore  was  of  moderate  grade 
and  the  work  was  discontinued.  A  reverberatory  smelter 
has  recently  been  installed  for  the  mines  in  Rioja. 

Coal  deposits  exist  in  Mendoza,  San  Juan,  Neuquen, 
Chubut,  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  The  coal  is  not  very  good 
but  will  help  in  view  of  the  shortage  and  high  prices. 
Work  is  being  done  in  San  Juan  and  Mendoza.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  open  mines  among  large  deposits  in  Chubut,  though 
the  coal  will  have  to  be  carried  180  miles  to  a  railway. 

The  tungsten  industry  is  active;  900  tons  have  been 
mined  in  one  year,  about  one-seventh  of  the  world  produc- 
tion. Exploitation  of  marble,  wolfram,  and  mica  in  Cordoba 
and  San  Luis  is  showing  good  results. 

Manganese  is  exported  in  increasing  quantity  chiefly 
from  the  desert  section  of  Santiago  del  Estero. 

Large  saline  deposits  exist,  some  in  basins  with  no  out- 
let, in  the  central  Provinces,  some  of  volcanic  type  on  the 
Puna  of  Atacama,  others  near  the  ocean  not  far  from  Bahia 
Blanca.  Some  of  them  have  been  exploited.  Importation 
of  salt  has  diminished  and  home  production  is  expected 
shortly  to  suffice  for  local  needs. 

Petroleum  is  now  exciting  the  greatest  interest.  Oil 
is  known  to  exist  in  four  regions  with  others  reported,  but 
only  one  has  been  thoroughly  tested,  that  at  Comodoro 
Rivadavia.  Borings  carried  on  here  by  the  Government 
struck  oil  at  a  depth  of  about  1800  feet  in  1907.  In  1910, 
12,000  acres  were  reserved  for  Government  exploitation 
which  has  since  been  carried  on.  The  place  is  near  the 
coast  about  850  miles  south  of  Buenos  Aires.  Development 
has  been  rather  slow,  but  in  1916,  25  wells  had  been  sunk 
and  21  were  in  active  production  of  about  14  tons  each  per 
day.  There  were  four  steel  tanks  and  other  storage  space, 
in  all  about  26,000  cubic  meters,  one  such  of  this  oil  equalling 
.93  metric  ton.  In  1917,  36  wells  were  in  production  and  19 
being  bored.  In  1918  about  1,250,000  barrels  were  produced. 


326  THE  EAST  COAST 

Tank  steamers  are  provided,  and  storage  tanks  in  Buenos 
Aires.  An  oil  tank  is  begun  in  Rosario.  Others  are  to  be 
constructed  in  Buenos  Aires,  Bahia  Blanca,  Puerto  Militar, 
Santa  Fe,  and  Mar  del  Plata.  The  oil  is  heavy  with  an 
asphalt  base;  distilled,  it  yields  1.5-3.5  per  cent  of  naphtha 
and  gasoline,  15-19  per  cent  of  illuminating  oils,  and  77-85 
per  cent  of  lubricating  oils,  fuel,  and  coke.  Heavier  than 
the  better  grades  of  United  States  oil,  it  has  been  used 
almost  entirely  as  fuel,  though  it  is  said  that  it  will  distil 
readily.  This  will  undoubtedly  be  its  chief  usefulness,  to 
serve  instead  of  coal.  It  is  employed  by  a  number  of  fac- 
tories. A  new  Government  well,  1921,  was  producing  34,000 
barrels  a  day,  and  prospects  are  of  the  best.  Millions  have 
been  appropriated  for  tank  steamers,  machinery,  and  for 
intensive  development  of  the  oil  fields.  The  price  rose  from 
about  $10  a  ton  in  1916  to  $40  in  December,  1917.  Govern- 
ment control  will  probably  continue,  especially  because  the 
oil  is  likely  to  be  used  by  the  navy. 

A  few  private  companies  are  operating  outside  the 
restricted  area,  using  12-inch  tubes,  while  the  Government 
has  used  smaller.  One  Company  with  a  capital  of  $2,000,000 
has  with  other  equipment  4.3  miles  of  railway  connecting 
with  the  Government  railway  to  the  port,  also  two  miles 
of  pipe  line.  Many  of  the  frigorificos  use  oil,  mostly  Mexi- 
can. The  West  India  Oil  Company  imports  from  the  United 
States  or  Mexico,  mainly  for  refining. 

The  other  fields  are  the  Salta-Jujuy,  the  Cacheuta,  a  few 
miles  south  of  Mendoza,  and  the  Mendoza-Neuquen  field, 
700  miles  southwest  of  Buenos  Aires.  In  these  fields  the 
oil  has  a  paraffine  base,  a  sample  from  Jujuy  showing  5  per 
cent  of  light  oil,  30  per  cent  of  kerosene,  and  52  of  lubricat- 
ing oil;  a  grade  equal  to  that  of  Pennsylvania  or  Ohio. 
One  such  field  in  Neuquen  justifying  immediate  develop- 
ment is  favorably  located  824  miles  from  Buenos  Aires 
near  the  Ferrocarril  del  Sud,  which  will  provide  special  cars 
and  tariff,  so  that  speedy  results  are  hoped  for. 


ARGENTINA  327 

INDUSTRIES  INCLUDING  MANUFACTURES 

While  Argentina  is  primarily  an  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral country  and  is  likely  so  to  continue,  a  fair  amount  of 
capital  is  invested  in  manufacturing  and  in  other  commer- 
cial projects,  some  of  the  capital  European.  The  largest 
sum  is  invested  in  Light  and  Power  Companies;  for  all 
cities  of  any  size  have  electric  lighting  and  many,  electric 
traction.  About  $128,000,000  have  been  thus  invested;  in 
packing  houses  40  millions,  flour  mills  7 ;  in  sugar  refineries 
50,  wine  making  78,  foundries  and  metal  works  25,  dairies, 
etc.,  43,  tannin  extract,  etc.,  33,  lithographing  and  printing 
12,  breweries  14,  construction  companies  II,  these  all  mil- 
lions. Other  companies  with  investments  of  5-10  millions 
are  shoes,  saw  mills,  jute  and  cotton  sacks,  carpentry, 
painting  and  horse-shoeing  together;  liquors,  tanneries, 
cotton  and  woolen  mills,  furniture,  trunks  and  tapestries, 
leather  goods,  brick  kilns,  clothing,  wagons  and  carriages, 
ice  and  aerated  waters,  ore  smelting,  grain  elevators;  many 
more  with  investment  of  1-5  millions,  besides  a  total  of  47 
million  in  still  smaller  companies. 

Of  other  lines,  in  1916  there  were  71  telephone  com- 
panies, capital  $15,000,000;  143  banks,  capital  about  $500,- 
000,000,  employing  10,000  persons;  85  insurance  companies. 
The  companies  of  all  kinds  generally  are  on  a  sound  and 
paying  basis,  in  spite  of  high  cost  of  fuel  and  power.  The 
two  leading  department  stores  in  Buenos  Aires,  equal  to 
our  best  in  character,  are  both  British  owned;  there  are 
many  other  shops  of  every  kind  of  the  highest  class. 

The  tramways  and  subway  of  Buenos  Aires  are  note- 
worthy. The  tramway  system  has  been  called  the  best  in 
the  world.  There  are  500  miles  of  lines,  carrying  about 
400,000,0000  passengers  yearly.  Packing  like  cattle  is  not 
allowed,  the  number  of  persons  per  car  being  strictly 
limited.  The  subway  8.7  miles  long  carries  2,500,000  with 
a  splendid  system  and  fine  service  including  one  for  freight. 


328  THE  EAST  COAST 

Extensions  were  postponed  on  account  of  the  War.  The 
water  supply,  taken  from  the  river,  and  the  drainage  system 
are  of  the  highest  character.  A  revenue  of  $7,000,000  is 
received  by  the  Government. 

Dairy  Products.  The  dairy  industry  is  of  quite  recent 
development;  butter  formerly  imported  in  quantity  is  now 
becoming  an  article  of  export.  From  1914  to  1918  the  pro- 
duction of  cheese  increased  277  per  cent,  of  butter  162  per 
cent.  Three  thousand  existing  creameries,  most  of  which 
are  in  the  Provinces  near  the  Capital,  in  1918  made  50,000,- 
ooo  pounds  of  butter,  40  million  of  cheese,  and  15  of  casein. 
More  than  half  the  butter  and  some  cheese  was  exported. 

The  growth  of  other  industries  has  caused  a  great  fall- 
ing off  in  many  imports;  of  preserves  62  per  cent,  of  ham 
96,  preserved  vegetables  87,  beer  98,  cider  55,  common  wine 
85.  Other  things  as  chocolate,  macaroni,  fruit  crackers, 
shoes,  and  cloth  have  decreased  50  per  cent.  Of  fideos 
enough  is  produced  for  home  use,  and  to  export  in  1918 
over  2,000,000  pounds. 

Furniture.  The  construction  of  furniture  has  attained 
large  proportions,  a  great  part  of  what  is  sold  in  the  country 
being  made  in  Buenos  Aires  though  often  bearing  foreign 
names.  Wood  is  imported,  even  $25,000,000  worth  in  one 
year,  while  the  finest  woods  grow  in  the  country.  Of  305 
saw  mills,  134,  the  most  important,  are  in  the  City  and 
Province  of  Buenos  Aires  far  from  the  forests.  The  small 
mills  near  the  woods  merely  chop  off  the  branches  for 
transport  or  prepare  firewood.  Cut  wood  from  Buenos 
Aires  is  returned  to  Misiones  and  Corrientes  for  construc- 
tion, a  terrible  waste.  A  change  has  begun ;  the  mills  near 
the  forests  are  being  enlarged  and  equipped  with  machin- 
ery, so  an  evolution  of  the  industry  is  under  way. 

Paper.  Eight  paper  factories  with  capital  of  $8,000,000 
employing  1500  persons  produce  40,000,000  pounds  of  paper, 
28,000,000  for  packing,  the  rest  for  newspapers,  books,  and 
other  things.  A  great  quantity  is  still  imported,  formerly 


ARGENTINA  329 

from  Germany,  lately  much  from  the  United  States.  The 
paper  is  made  of  rags,  shreds  of  paper,  and  pasteboard,  the 
consumption  of  pulp  being  small,  hardly  200,000  pounds. 
One  factory  at  Barranqueras,  on  the  Parana  River  in  the 
Chaco,  employs  a  kind  of  bog  grass  to  make  three  tons 
of  straw  board  a  day. 

Flour.  The  flour  mills  are  of  great  importance,  supply- 
ing in  1919,  850,000  tons  of  flour  for  home  use  and  some  for 
export.  In  1918,  176,445  tons  were  exported.  With  fewer 
mills  than  formerly,  the  400  existing  are  more  productive. 
The  79  in  Buenos  Aires,  47  in  Santa  Fe,  44  in  Entre  Rios, 
and  26  in  Cordoba  produce  95  per  cent  of  the  total.  Sixty- 
one  per  cent  of  the  mills  are  Argentine  owned.  One  hundred 
and  fifty  two  are  steam  mills,  156  hydraulic.  They  have 
25,000-30,000  horse  power  and  employ  10,000  persons.  About 
$34,000,000  are  invested  in  the  industry  while  the  produc- 
tion is  $100,000,000.  However  the  farmers  have  trouble, 
as  the  fee  for  hauling  grain  has  increased  60  per  cent,  and 
cartage  25  miles  to  a  station  is  as  much  as  the  freight  from 
Buenos  Aires  to  New  York.  A  flour  mill  in  Mendoza  and 
in  other  western  cities  of  the  wheat  belt  would  undoubtedly 
pay  handsomely,  saving  expensive  transport.  A  new  flour 
mill  at  La  Plata  to  cost  $500,000  is  to  turn  out  a  quantity 
sufficient  to  fill  looo  bags  a  day. 

Beer  is  made  in  25  factories  for  the  consumption  of  the 
entire  country,  a  quantity  of  80,000,000  litres  worth  $12,000,- 
ooo.  To  produce  the  7000  horse  power  needed,  thousands 
of  tons  of  coal,  wood,  and  petroleum  are  consumed. 

Other  Manufactures.  Factories  making  shoes,  said  to 
be  of  the  best  quality,  underwear,  umbrellas,  acids,  perfume, 
and  many  other  articles  are  found.  Vegetable  oils  are  ex- 
tracted from  peanuts,  linseed,  rape,  cotton  seed,  and  other 
articles,  in  establishments  in  Buenos  Aires  and  Santa  Fe. 

Altogether  there  are  about  50,000  industrial  establish- 
ments with  a  capital  of  $800,000,000  using  678,000  horse 
power,  employing  500,000  persons,  consuming  nearly  $500,- 


330  THE  EAST  COAST 

000,000  worth  of  material,  and  producing  nearly  $1,000,- 
000,000  worth  of  goods.  About  half  of  these  are  extractive 
or  manufacturing.  One-third  belong  to  the  Argentines  who 
supply  18.67  per  cent  of  the  capital. 

Developing  Industries.  The  Government  is  interested 
in  the  establishment  of  other  factories  and  construction  work ; 
a  cement  factory  in  Buenos  Aires  to  make  300,000  tons  per 
annum  is  considered,  the  Government  now  using  700,000  tons 
a  year.  Ship  building  is  encouraged;  a  steel  ship  of  1250  tons 
was  launched  at  Riachuelo;  yards  are  to  be  constructed  at 
the  port  of  Carmen  de  Patagones  on  the  Rio  Negro  by  an 
Argentine  company  with  capital  of  50,000,000  pesos.  Some 
armored  cement  oil-tanks  of  6000  tons  capacity  are  to  be  made 
for  Comodoro  Rivadavia,  and  a  depot  for  petroleum  and 
naphtha  at  the  port  of  Mar  del  Plata.  Also  for  the  former, 
port  works,  a  breakwater,  a  mole  for  loading,  and  houses  for 
workmen  at  a  cost  of  17,000,000  pesos.  Sanitary  works  for 
1 6  towns  at  a  cost  of  9,800,000  pesos  are  provided  for,  22,000,- 
ooo  pesos  are  to  be  spent  in  three  years  for  machinery  and 
tank  steamers  to  develop  the  Government  oil  wells,  the  exploi- 
tation of  which  will  cost  45,000,000  pesos;  present  production 
is  yet  insufficient. 

A  Spanish  Argentine  Corporation  with  a  capital  of  $10,- 
000,000  is  to  build  two  large  frigorificos  at  Buenos  Aires  and 
Santa  Fe,  with  steamers  to  transport  beef  to  Spain.  Another 
frigorifico  is  designed  for  Puerto  Deseado  in  the  south  to 
cooperate  with  local  ranchmen. 

The  lack  of  combustibles  has  for  many  years  been  a 
great  and  embarrassing  problem,  an  early  solution  of  which 
is  now  hoped  for.  Importation  of  coal  from  England  and 
of  petroleum  from  the  United  States  has  been  carried  on 
at  great  cost.  In  five  years,  1912-16,  $190,000,000  was  spent 
for  such  articles,  while  as  they  say  petroleum  ran  into  the 
sea  and  wood  rotted  at  the  railway  stations.  In  1919  coal 
was  $26  a  ton.  The  forests  of  the  north  have  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  wood;  the  charcoal  industry  is  quite 


ARGENTINA  331 

well  developed  in  the  Chaco,  north  Santa  Fe,  Tucuman, 
and  Santiago.  Many  woods  are  appropriate,  but  high 
freights  have  impeded  their  use.  A  large  deposit  of  coal  is 
recently  reported  in  Tucuman.  A  new  railway  to  the  fire- 
wood region  of  Santiago  del  Estero  will  save  a  100  mile 
haul.  A  splendid  source  of  electric  power  are  the  Iguassu 
Falls  with  275  cascades,  the  greatest  with  a  height  of  213 
feet.  Investigation  shows  that  500,000  horse  power  is  easily 
available,  one  half  each  for  Brazil  and  Argentina.  Ten 
thousand  horse  power  would  be  sent  800  miles  to  Buenos 
Aires,  the  rest  used  in  Misiones,  Corrientes,  and  Entre  Rios. 
From  the  Salto  Grande  Falls  on  the  Uruguay  50,000  horse 
power  might  be  available  for  Argentina  and  Uruguay  each. 

INVESTMENTS 

The  opportunity  for  investments  for  persons  with  capital 
is  evidently  large.  A  great  deal  of  money  is  necessary  for 
stock  raising,  though  less  in  the  far  south.  Agriculture, 
especially  the  raising  of  cotton,  rice,  or  tobacco  might  be 
attractive ;  the  sugar  industry  may  be  extended.  Factories 
of  various  kind  may  be  established  by  experts.  Persons 
speaking  Spanish  fluently,  capable  of  acting  as  foremen  or 
superintendents  of  establishments  of  various  kinds,  might 
find  employment.  The  minerals  with  the  exception  of 
petroleum  are  less  accessible  than  in  some  other  countries. 
An  American  department  store  in  Buenos  Aires  is  desirable, 
and  one  might  succeed  in  Rosario. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

PARAGUAY:  AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  ETC. 

Paraguay  has  been  called  the  most  romantic  of  all  the 
South  American  countries,  from  the  point  of  view  of  nature 
and  history  both.  It  is  a  land  of  "dolce  far  niente"  so  far 
as  agreeableness  is  concerned,  a  land  where  nature  is  lavish 
and  necessities  are  few;  on  the  other  hand  a  region  where 
the  climate  is  not  enervating,  where  energetic  action  and 
enterprise  are  not  altogether  lacking,  and  where  these  find 
ample  reward.  One  of  the  two  inland  countries  of  the  con- 
tinent, having  always  been  such,  she  has  no  grievance  on 
this  account.  In  fact,  being  in  the  heart  of  South  America 
and  almost  surrounded  by  rivers,  Paraguay  has  in  many 
ways  a  most  favorable  location  for  inland  commerce,  which 
will  surely  bring  her  prosperity. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  Paraguay,  generally  called  eighth  in  size  of  the 
South  American  Republics,  has  an  area  of  about  165,000 
square  miles,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  determination 
of  the  boundary  dispute  with  Bolivia.  One  hundred  and 
ninety-six  thousand  miles  is  claimed  by  the  Paraguay  Gov- 
ernment. The  more  settled  part  of  the  country  east  of  the 
Paraguay  River  covers  about  65,000  square  miles;  the  sec- 
tion west,  which  on  most  maps  is  given  to  Paraguay,  though 
claimed  by  Bolivia,  is  more  uncertain  in  area,  but  may  have 
100,000  or  more  square  miles.  With  the  other  neighboring 
countries  the  boundaries  have  been  definitely  determined. 

S3* 


PARAGUAY  333 

Population.  As  in  several  other  countries,  the  popula- 
tion of  Paraguay  can  be  estimated  only,  since  no  exact 
census  has  ever  been  taken.  Approximate  figures  given 
by  different  writers  are  800,000-1,100,000. 

Boundary.  Paraguay  has  Brazil  on  the  north  and  east; 
Argentina,  too,  is  east,  is  exclusively  on  the  south,  and 
partly  on  the  west;  while  Bolivia  is  west  and  north  of  the 
Chaco,  the  dividing  line  being  uncertain. 

The  greater  part  of  the  way  rivers  form  the  boundary 
line.  The  Parana  separates  Paraguay  proper  from  Argen- 
tina on  the  south,  and  on  the  east  as  far  as  the  Iguassu 
River;  north  of  the  latter  river  Brazil  is  on  the  opposite 
shore  of  the  Parana  to  beyond  the  Sete  Quedas,  or  Falls  of 
La  Guayra  (higher  up  the  Parana  is  wholly  in  Brazil)  ; 
the  boundary  line  then  goes  west  and  north  along  the 
watershed  to  the  source  of  a  branch  of  the  Rio  Apa,  which 
with  that  river  it  follows  west  down  to  the  Paraguay. 
Above  the  point  of  junction  the  Paraguay  River  has  Brazil 
on  the  east  bank  and  for  some  distance  the  Paraguayan 
Chaco  on  the  west.  Below  the  Apa,  the  Paraguay  divides 
the  country  into  sections,  as  far  as  the  Pilcomayo  River, 
on  the  southwest  of  which  is  Argentina.  Below,  along  the 
Paraguay  River  to  the  Alto  Parana,  Argentina  is  on  the 
west.  The  Chaco  section  may  be  said  at  present  to  be  in  the 
practical  possession  of  Paraguay,  so  far  as  it  is  occupied 
by  any  one  except  savages. 

HISTORY 

It  seems  extraordinary  that  here  in  the  centre  of  the 
South  American  continent,  1000  miles  from  the  sea,  is  one 
of  the  oldest  cities,  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  Asuncion, 
founded  a  full  century  earlier  than  Providence  (1636),  and 
85  years  before  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth. 
Juan  de  Ayolas,  sent  by  Pedro  de  Mendoza  after  the  first 
settlement  at  Buenos  Aires  (not  long  after  destroyed),  in 


334  THE  EAST  COAST 

1536  established  here  a  colony;  then  sailing  up  the  river  to 
a  place  he  called  Candelaria,  with  a  few  followers  he  boldly 
struck  off  through  the  forest  towards  Peru.  Irala,  left 
behind  to  await  his  return,  proved  faithful;  but  after  long 
waiting  in  vain,  being  obliged  twice  to  go  to  Asuncion  for 
provisions,  he  learned  at  last  that  Ayolas,  after  a  success- 
ful journey  to  Alto  Peru,  had  arrived  in  his  absence  and 
had  then  been  slaughtered  by  savages:  a  tragic  sequel  of 
heroism,  fitly  to  be  compared  to  that  of  Captain  Scott,  his 
achievement  of  the  South  Pole,  followed  by  the  disastrous 
return  journey. 

Irala,  later  becoming  Governor,  was  one  of  the  few  Con- 
quistador es,  after  many  vicissitudes,  to  die  peacefully  in  1557. 
Until  1776,  Asuncion  was  the  chief  Spanish  city  of  the  eastern 
slope  of  South  America.  Buenos  Aires  then  became  the  seat 
of  a  Viceroy,  in  that  year  appointed. 

In  1810,  after  expelling  the  Viceroy,  the  Argentines  sent 
up  a  small  army,  expecting  Paraguay  also  to  revolt,  but  she 
declined.  However,  in  1811  the  Paraguayans  expelled  the 
Spanish  Governor;  in  1814  a  despotism  under  Dr.  J.  G.  R. 
Francia  came  into  being.  At  his  death  in  1840,  his  nephew, 
Carlos  Antonio  Lopez,  succeeded  to  power,  followed  in  1862 
by  his  son,  Francisco  Lopez.  This  young  man,  who  had  visited 
Europe,  soon  organized  a  well  drilled  army  with  the  idea  of 
becoming  a  second  Napoleon,  in  South  America.  His  oppor- 
tunity came  when  Uruguay  appealed  for  his  assistance  against 
the  Portuguese  of  Brazil.  Crossing  Argentine  territory  to 
invade  Brazil,  in  spite  of  the  refusal  of  Argentina  to  give 
permission,  Lopez  became  involved  in  war  with  both  of  the 
larger  countries  and  later  with  Uruguay.  Although  so  small, 
Paraguay  might  have  held  her  own  against  one  of  the  larger 
Republics,  but  after  making  a  desperate  struggle  for  nearly 
six  years,  during  which  most  of  the  male  citizens  were  killed, 
boys  of  12-15  forced  to  fight,  women  compelled  to  work  in  the 
fields  and  to  act  as  supply  bearers,  with  cruel  persecution  from 


PARAGUAY  335 

the  Dictator,  the  army  was  utterly  wiped  out,  and  Lopez  killed 
in  1870.    Three- fourths  of  the  population  had  perished. 

Not  yet  has  the  country  recovered  its  previous  condition 
and  numbers,  several  revolutions  having  interrupted  its  growth ; 
the  last  in  1911-12.  Curiously,  the  people  pride  themselves  on 
being  one  of  the  most  homogeneous  of  the  South  American 
Republics  and  the  best  fighters. 

GOVERNMENT 

The  Government  organized  in  1870  is  of  the  usual  form 
with  three  branches.  The  President,  elected  for  four  years, 
is  not  again  eligible  for  eight  years.  There  are  two  Houses  of 
Congress,  a  Senate  of  13  members  and  a  Chamber  of  26 
Deputies.  A  Permanent  Committee  of  Congress  sits  during 
the  interval  between  sessions,  both  to  provide  for  emergencies 
and  to  prevent  usurpation  by  the  Executive.  The  Judiciary 
has  a  Supreme  Court,  two  Superior  Courts  of  Appeal,  Civil 
and  Criminal  Courts  with  Lower  Courts  and  Justices. 

The  section  west  of  the  River  is  under  military  command ; 
the  part  east  has  23  electoral  districts  with  subdivisions.  As 
in  Argentina,  all  persons  born  in  the  Republic  are  deemed 
citizens. 

There  are  said  to  be  20  Districts,  some  of  which  along  the 
Paraguay  from  the  north  are  Concepcion,  San  Pedro,  Villeta, 
Pilar;  farther  east  Caraguatay,  Yhu,  Paraguari,  Guaira, 
Guindi,  Caazapa,  San  Ignacio,  and  Encarnacion.  All  have 
capitals  of  the  same  name  except  Guaira,  the  capital  of  which 
is  Villa  Rica.  Data  as  to  area  and  population  of  these  is 
lacking. 

An  unusual  official  is  a  Defender  General  of  the  Poor, 
of  Minors,  and  of  Absentees. 

POPULATION  , 

The  Paraguayans  claim  that  their  people  are  nearly  pure 
Spanish,  with  slight  admixture  of  Guarani,  this  being  the 


336  THE  EAST  COAST 

most  numerous,  intelligent,  and  peaceful  of  the  Indian  tribes 
of  that  region.  Preserving  the  spirit  of  the  invaders,  they 
are  an  unusually  hardy  race  for  one  on  the  edge  of  the  tropics. 
While  Spanish  blood  and  culture  largely  predominate  in  the 
capital,  the  population  of  the  rural  districts  is  more  primitive 
in  character. 

The  number  of  the  people  is  uncertain,  but  may  reach 
1,000,000,  including  50,000,  some  say  100,000  wild  Indians 
belonging  to  several  tribes,  chiefly  in  the  Chaco.  In  the  eastern 
section  of  Paraguay  proper  there  are  probably  not  over  25,000 
persons,  most  of  the  population  being  east  and  south  of  the 
mountainous  section  and  especially  near  the  Paraguay  River. 
They  say  that  there  are  no  idle  or  poor  in  the  country,  although 
many  may  be  seen  barefoot  in  Asuncion;  as  the  simple  life  is 
popular,  little  clothing  is  needed,  and  food  is  abundant.  (Of 
late  the  standard  of  living  has  been  rising.)  For  this  reason 
the  country  people  generally  lack  energy  and  ambition.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  some  also  in 
pastoral  pursuits.  The  native  women  are  called  superior  to 
the  men.  Burdens  thrown  upon  them  during  their  great  war 
made  them  resourceful  and  independent.  The  men  as  a  rule 
are  peaceful  unless  they  have  been  drinking  cana,  which  is 
now  forbidden  by  some  large  employers  of  labor.  In  the  sec- 
tion east  of  the  mountains  are  uncivilized  Indians  of  the 
principal  tribes,  one  timid  and  retiring.  Some  of  the  Cainguaes 
at  times  work  in  the  yerbales.  The  Indians  in  the  Chaco  are 
of  a  number  of  different  tribes  of  a  low  order  of  civilization, 
who  are  mostly  nomads,  and  live  by  the  chase  and  fishing. 
A  few  work  at  estancias  spasmodically,  never  for  long. 

EDUCATION 

Education  is  backward,  though  the  percentage  of  illiteracy, 
if  about  60  as  is  said,  may  be  less  than  in  some  of  the  other 
Republics.  With  the  scattered  population,  chiefly  in  the 
country  and  in  small  towns,  to  provide  educational  facilities 
for  all  is  impossible.  There  is  a  University  in  Asuncion  with 
five  Faculties ;  secondary  schools  in  Asuncion,  Pilar,  and  Villa 


PARAGUAY  337 

Rica;  and  six  Normal  Schools.  A  School  of  Commerce  with 
night  and  day  classes  does  good  work  in  the  capital,  where 
the  Institute  Paraguayo  is  of  important  cultural  value,  recently 
receiving  a  library  of  2000  volumes  in  English  from  the 
Carnegie  Peace  Foundation.  The  Banco  Agricola  has  done 
much  for  the  diffusion  of  general  education  as  well  as  more 
specifically  in  agriculture.  As  in  other  countries,  some  young 
men  go  abroad  to  study,  either  on  Government  scholarships 
or  with  private  means. 

PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

Press.  The  capital  is  well  supplied  with  newspapers 
and  periodicals;  little  journalism  exists  elsewhere. 

Religion.  The  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  but  there  is 
complete  toleration  for  other  creeds.  An  important  work 
has  been  carried  on  in  the  Chaco  by  W.  Barbrooke  Grubb 
and  others  of  the  English  Church.  Schools  have  been  estab- 
lished, with  an  industrial  and  intellectual  as  well  as  a 
religious  centre.  Civil  marriage  alon^  is  legal. 

Telegraphic  communication  with  the  outside  world  is 
carried  on  by  way  of  Posadas  and  Corrientes,  but  frequent 
interruptions  in  service  have  made  it  unsatisfactory.  There 
are  over  2000  miles  of  wire  in  the  interior.  Wireless  is  used 
by  the  Government  to  communicate  with  the  garrison 
towns.  There  are  stations  at  the  Capital,  Concepcion,  and 
Encarnacion.  In  1919  there  was  no  Telephone  service  in 
Asuncion,  as  the  station  had  been  destroyed  by  fire;  but 
such  service  existed  in  Concepcion,  Villa  Rica,  and  Para- 
guari. 

Money.  The  Money  in  use  is  paper,  the  standard,  a  gold 
peso  equal  to  the  Argentine,  96.5  cents.  The  paper  peso 
varies  in  value,  in  1920  being  worth  five  cents.  The  value 
of  exports  and  imports  is  declared  in  gold,  an  Exchange 
Bureau  supplying  local  money  at  the  actual  rate.  Thus 
fluctuations  affecting  commerce  have  ceased  and  business 
has  improved. 

The  Metric  System  of  weights  and  measures  is  usual. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
PARAGUAY:  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

Highlands.  The  physical  features  of  the  country  are 
simple,  the  Paraguay  River  dividing  it  into  sections:  the 
Gran  Chaco,  to  some  extent  unexplored  in  detail,  and  the 
Oriental.  The  latter,  Paraguay  proper,  is  traversed  from 
north  to  south  by  a  broad  irregular  belt  of  highlands,  no- 
where much  above  2200  feet.  The  angle  of  the  ridges  is 
sharper  on  the  west,  the  country  undulating  in  gradual 
slopes  from  the  foot.  On  the  east,  spurs  run  out  enclosing 
deep  valleys,  and  the  country  has  more  of  an  upland  charac- 
ter. The  streams  flowing  west  to  the  Paraguay  are  smoother 
and  to  some  extent  navigable,  while  those  flowing  east  and 
southeast  to  the  Alto  Parana  are  interrupted  by  rapids  and 
falls. 

Plains.  In  the  southwest  section  between  the  Paraguay 
and  the  Parana  there  is  considerable  marshy  country,  part 
draining  into  the  Ypoa  lagoon;  other  marshy  lowlands 
occur  along  the  Paraguay  River.  All  these  could  be  drained 
at  moderate  expense,  thus  providing  much  rich  and  acces- 
sible land.  The  western  section,  containing  most  of  the 
inhabitants,  has  an  average  altitude  of  about  600  feet.  In 
the  more  settled  parts  of  the  west  and  south  are  extensive 
grassy  and  open  lands,  and  hills  covered  with  forests,  while 
clumps  of  trees  are  frequent  in  the  lowlands.  The  soil  of 
the  western  part  is  rather  dry  and  sandy  except  near  the 
rivers  and  marshes.  It  is  extremely  rich,  of  a  reddish  color 
due  to  impregnated  iron.  Above  is  a  thick  layer  of  humus, 
formed  by  centuries  of  decaying  vegetation.  In  places  the 
soil  is  clayey,  or  has  a  substratum  of  clay  beneath.  This 

338 


PARAGUAY  339 

is  true  of  most  of  the  forest  region,  and  of  the  swampy 
section.  Of  Paraguay  proper  the  western  part  is  25  per 
cent  forest,  the  middle  66,  the  eastern  95  per  cent. 

The  Gran  Chaco,  though  called  a  plain,  and  flat  near  the 
rivers,  is  somewhat  hilly.  Rarely,  a  freshet  on  the  Para- 
guay or  the  Pilcomayo  transforms  the  neighboring  country 
into  great  lakes,  these  sometimes  extending  20  or  30  miles 
back  from  the  river.  Along  the  river  banks  is  usually  a 
narrow  strip  of  forest,  from  which  the  soil  and  trees 
occasionally  crumble  into  the  stream,  especially  along  the 
Pilcomayo,  thus  impeding  navigation  on  that  river.  Far- 
ther back  are  open  plains  dotted  with  groups  of  palms,  and 
some  stretches  of  forest.  The  average  altitude  is  426  feet. 
Little  is  known  of  the  country  north  of  22°. 

Rivers.  The  country  is  greatly  favored  with  rivers. 
The  Paraguay,  1800  miles  long,  rises  in  Matto  Grosso, 
Brazil,  near  the  source  of  the  Tapajos,  a  branch  of  the 
Amazon.  From  the  east  the  Paraguay  receives  several 
important  streams.  Below  the  Apa,  the  northern  boundary, 
two  tributaries,  the  Aquidaban  and  the  Ipane,  are  nearly 
200  miles  long.  More  important  is  the  navigable  Jejui  (all 
these  north  of  Asuncion)  ;  still  more  the  Tebicuary,  enter- 
ing the  Paraguay  far  south  of  Asuncion  by  two  mouths, 
one  over  one-half,  the  other  over  one-third  of  a  mile  in  width. 
The  Alto  Parana  is  different,  a  more  rocky  and  a  shallower 
stream  than  the  Paraguay.  From  that  country  it  has  many 
affluents,  the  Monday  over  100  miles  long  with  great  cata- 
racts in  the  lower  part  but  navigable  above.  The  Parana 
River,  2000  miles  long  to  the  mouth  of  the  Uruguay,  rises 
in  Goyaz,  665  miles  above  the  Sete  Quedas.  It  is  100  miles 
more  to  the  Iguassu,  then  492  to  Corrientes,  and  676  beyond 
to  the  beginning  of  the  La  Plata. 

The  rivers  of  the  Chaco  are  more  sluggish.  Even  the 
Pilcomayo  is  untraced  in  its  middle  course  where  vast 
swamps  impede  passage  by  land  or  water.  The  river  is 
navigable  in  its  lower  reaches  for  a  considerable  distance, 


340  THE  EAST  COAST 

and  the  upper  part  is  well  known.  The  River  Confuse  is 
a  smaller  stream  of  similar  character.  Paraguay  has  few 
lakes  save  those  swampy  in  character,  but  one,  Lake 
Ipacarai,  east  of  Asuncion,  is  a  popular  beauty  spot,  with 
pleasure  and  health  resorts.  Lake  Ypoa  is  larger  and  both 
are  navigable  by  boats  of  slight  draft. 

CLIMATE 

The  climate  of  the  country  is  called  ideal,  that  of  course 
depending  on  one's  taste.  In  general  it  is  subtropical  with 
two  seasons,  the  summer  temperature  averaging  81°,  the 
winter  71°  or  less.  The  rainfall  is  fairly  distributed,  the 
most  in  the  hot  months,  December  to  February.  Sudden 
changes  of  weather  occur;  from  hot,  humid  north  winds, 
or  cooling  south  winds  from  the  Argentine  plains.  In  places 
the  winter  temperature  may  fall  to  33°— 42°,  even  with  frost, 
but  not  near  the  Parana  River  where  there  are  fogs.  In 
summer  the  maximum  temperature  at  Asuncion  occasion- 
ally reaches  100°  or  more,  and  there  are  60  inches  of  rain; 
more  farther  east,  but  less  in  the  Chaco. 


CHAPTER  XL 
PARAGUAY:  THE  CAPITAL  AND  OTHER  CITIES 

THE  CAPITAL 

Asuncion,  the  population  of  which  is  variously  given  as 
80,  90,  loo,  120,  and  125  thousand,  is  a  quiet  town  on  the 
Paraguay  at  a  point  where  the  bank  rises  to  a  considerable 
height,  affording  good  drainage,  and  from  the  palace  a  pleas- 
ing view.  An  English  writer  calls  the  city  the  nicest,  cleanest 
town  above  Buenos  Aires.  Although  1000  miles  from  the 
ocean,  it  has  an  altitude  of  but  203  feet  above  sea  level. 
The  classical  building  of  the  Custom  House  stands  by  the 
river  side.  The  palace  above,  built  by  the  Dictator, 
Francisco  Lopez,  as  a  residence,  is  used  for  the  offices  of 
the  President  and  his  Cabinet.  Other  important  buildings 
are  a  House  of  Congress,  a  Cathedral,  a  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts  containing  a  Murillo,  and  a  National  Library  with 
many  priceless  documents. 

The  several  hotels  are  fairly  comfortable  if  not  exactly 
modern  in  character.  There  are  electric  lights  and  electric 
car  service.  The  streets  at  last  accounts  were  poorly  paved 
with  rough  cobble  stones,  but  some  automobiles  are  in  use. 
The  city  is  steadily  advancing  in  commercial  importance, 
80  per  cent  of  the  imports  and  40  of  the  exports  passing 
through  its  Custom  House. 

OTHER  CITIES 

From  the  meagre  information  available,  to  describe 
individually  the  various  States  or  Districts  of  Paraguay  is 
impossible,  as  also  unimportant,  the  sparse  settlements  hav- 

341 


342  THE  EAST  COAST 

ing  little  marked  variation.  Mention  will  be  made  instead 
of  the  principal  towns,  few  of  which  have  a  population  of 
15,000. 

Villa  Rica,  population  perhaps  30,000,  40  hours  from 
Buenos  Aires  and  93  miles  from  Asuncion,  is  the  second 
city  of  Paraguay.  Situated  in  a  rich  agricultural  district, 
it  is  destined  to  a  sound  if  not  rapid  development.  It  will 
become  important  later  as  a  railway  junction;  for  the  rail- 
way designed  to  cross  the  Parana  River  into  Brazil  just 
above  the  entrance  of  the  Iguassu,  passing  the  great  Falls, 
will  connect  with  the  Sao  Paulo-Rio  Grande  Railway  at 
Uniao  de  Victoria  and  go  on  to  Sao  Francisco,  called  the 
best  port  in  Brazil  south  of  Santos.  However,  the  date  of 
this  road's  completion  is  uncertain.  The  actual  railway 
junction  is  at  Borja,  a  little  south  of  Villa  Rica,  but  the 
latter  place  will  receive  the  benefit.  All  of  the  towns  are 
what  we  might  call  large  country  villages. 

Villa  Concepcion,  130  miles  up  the  river  from  Asuncion, 
the  third  if  not  the  second  city  of  commercial  importance, 
with  a  population  given  as  16,  25,  also  30  thousand,  is  a  port 
for  yerba,  cattle,  quebracho,  and  sugar.  The  town  of  one  story 
houses  has  better  streets  than  those  of  the  Capital,  and  a 
comfortable  inn.  It  may  now  boast  of  50  automobiles, 
instead  of  the  one  stylish  turnout  noted  years  ago  by 
Colonel  Roosevelt. 

Villa  Encarnacion,  population  15,000  or  less,  opposite 
Posadas,  is  another  city  of  commercial  importance,  as  the 
junction  of  the  railway  ferry  and  of  river  transportation. 
Here  there  is  a  change  of  river  boats,  those  of  lighter  draft 
being  required  for  the  Upper  Parana. 

Other  towns  are  Paraguari  on  the  railway  between 
Asuncion  and  Villa  Rica,  Carapegua  near  by,  San  Pedro 
north  of  Asuncion,  half  way  to  Concepcion,  Luque,  nine 
miles  south  of  the  Capital,  and  Pilar,  well  down  the  river. 
Villa  Hayes  is  one  of  several  centres  of  commercial  impor- 
tance in  the  Chaco. 


PARAGUAY  343 

San  Bernadino  on  Lake  Ipacarai,  two  hours  from 
Asuncion,  is  a  pleasure  resort  favored  in  winter  by  citizens 
of  Buenos  Aires.  A  large  modern  hotel  caters  both  to 
fashionables  and  to  sufferers  from  tuberculosis. 

TRANSPORTATION 

River  transportation  in  Paraguay  is  of  the  greatest 
importance.  Large  comfortable  steamers  give  good  service 
three  times  a  week  between  Buenos  Aires  and  Asuncion, 
making  the  trip  upward  in  four  or  five  days,  down  stream 
in  three.  Above  Asuncion  boats  of  suitable  size  and  draft 
give  poorer  service  on  the  Paraguay.  Several  lines  run 
up  765  miles  to  Corumba  in  Brazil,  a  three  or  four  days 
journey,  calling  on  the  way  at  several  Paraguayan  ports, 
Concepcion,  250  miles,  San  Salvador,  Puerto  Max,  and 
others.  Fares  are  high,  especially  down  stream,  apparently 
because  one  is  obliged  to  go.  Some  ports  on  the  Paraguay 
and  on  a  few  branches  above  and  below  the  capital  are 
visited  by  local  steamers.  Barges  can  be  floated  on  over 
2000  miles  of  internal  rivers.  Chatas  (which  are  poled 
along)  drawing  2-4  feet  of  water  carry  10-100  tons;  such 
boats  on  the  Paraguay  may  carry  600  tons. 

On  the  Alto  Parana,  as  previously  stated,  there  is  semi- 
weekly  service  from  Corrientes  to  Encarnacion  and  Posadas. 
Above,  three  times  a  week  steamers,  with  many  calls  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  make  a  four  days'  journey  to  the  Iguassu 
and  beyond  to  Puerto  Mendez,  from  which  point  a  short  rail- 
way in  Brazil  passes  around  La  Guayra  Falls. 

Railway  facilities  are  increasing,  construction  though  not 
so  easy  as  on  the  Argentine  plains  being  less  difficult  than  in 
general  in  the  other  Republics.  Nearly  475  miles  of  track 
are  in  operation,  200  of  them  privately  owned.  The  main 
line  of  the  Central  Paraguay,  Encarnacion  to  Asuncion,  230 
miles,  has  first  class  equipment  with  through  sleepers  to 
Buenos  Aires,  966  miles  from  Asuncion.  Several  short  lines 


844  THE  EAST  COAST 

of  very  narrow  gauge,  about  30  inches,  transport  quebracho 
and  timber  from  the  interior  to  river  ports,  152  miles  of  these 
in  the  Chaco.  A  railway  of  40  miles  serves  sugar  mills  back 
of  Concepcion.  If  the  cross  lines  proposed  to  Brazil  and 
Bolivia  (of  one  of  the  former  some  miles  are  in  operation) 
are  constructed  within  the  decade,  a  rapid  development  will 
ensue.  Cart  roads  are  few  and  very  poor.  In  wet  weather 
six  or  eight  oxen  are  required  for  a  cart.  Two-wheeled 
vehicles  are  much  employed. 


CHAPTER  XLI 
PARAGUAY:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

The  chief  resources  of  Paraguay  at  present  and  for  an 
indefinite  future  are  pastoral  pursuits,  forestry,  and  agri- 
culture. 

FORESTRY 

Quebracho.  The  exploitation  of  quebracho  is  an  im- 
portant source  of  wealth.  On  the  estimated  27,000,000  acres 
of  forest  land  in  the  country  are  valuable  woods  of  many 
varieties,  among  which  the  quebracho  is  preeminent.  The 
first  factory  in  South  America  for  the  extraction  of  tannin 
from  this  wood  was  established  in  1889  at  Puerto  Galileo  in 
the  Chaco.  The  Forestal  Company,  British  owned,  was  a 
leader  in  the  development  of  the  industry  in  which  one  or 
more  American  companies  have  lately  become  interested. 
Large  sums  have  been  invested,  $15,000,000  it  is  said  by  a 
single  company.  Most  of  the  properties  are  located  in  the 
Chaco,  which  has  great  tracts  of  land  distributed  to  indi- 
viduals or  companies,  some  of  whom  have  never  seen  their 
holdings.  One  American  company  has  1,500,000  acres. 

Unlike  most  other  trees  from  which  tannin  is  derived, 
the  tannin  is  not  in  the  bark,  but  it  permeates  the  entire 
wood.  Formerly  the  logs  were  exported,  but  this  is  now 
forbidden.  The  International  Products  Company  has  a  mill 
at  Puerto  Pinasco  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Paraguay  above 
San  Salvador,  and  300  miles  north  of  San  Antonio.  The 
wood  is  remarkably  rich  in  tannin  which  runs  20  per  cent. 
The  wood  must  be  cut  and  then  ground  to  extract  the  sub- 

345 


346  THE  EAST  COAST 

stance,  the  refuse  wood  running  the  engines.  One  tree 
weighing  a  ton  will  produce  600  pounds  of  extract.  By 
means  of  three  rotary  evaporators,  the  extract  may  be 
solidified  so  as  to  be  packed  in  bags,  75-100  tons  of  the  solid 
in  24  hours.  The  Company,  owning  enough  wood  to  pro- 
duce 450,000  tons,  is  equipped  to  supply  30,000  tons  of  the 
extract  annually.  The  trees  are  hauled  by  oxen  to  a  light 
railway  which  brings  them  to  the  port,  the  railway  being 
extended  as  the  felling  of  the  trees  goes  farther  inland. 
Twenty  million  pounds  of  extract  were  exported  from  Para- 
guay in  1919. 

Other  Wood.  Several  other  trees  have  bark  which  is 
used  for  tannin,  among  them  the  curupay,  said  to  have  28  per 
cent  in  the  bark,  which  is  used  in  Paraguay.  This  is  one  of 
the  strongest  woods  in  the  world,  like  quebracho  much  wanted 
for  railway  ties.  The  urunday  is  a  wood  so  durable  that  posts 
of  it  in  damp  ground  have  lasted  200  years.  Other  woods 
resemble  the  hickory,  the  English  walnut,  the  soft  pine,  etc. 
The  ivara-pltak  is  a  fine  all  around  timber,  light,  tough,  and 
hard,  an  unusual  combination.  Lignum  vitae  (pah  santo), 
almost  as  hard  as  quebracho,  cedar,  and  bitter  orange  abound, 
the  leaves  of  the  latter  used  for  essential  oil,  chiefly  exported 
to  France.  The  hard  woods  are  useful  for  railways,  for  cabi- 
net making,  and  fine  furniture;  also  for  firewood  on  account 
of  the  enormous  price  of  coal.  From  the  proximity  of  the 
forests  to  the  coalless  region  of  Argentina  and  its  plains,  mostly 
treeless  or  supporting  light  woods  only,  like  eucalyptus  and 
poplar,  forestry  is  certain  to  have  in  Paraguay  a  speedy  and 
extensive  development,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
great  variety  of  trees  growing  in  a  small  space,  as  47  different 
kinds  among  163  trees  in  a  tract  100  yards  square.  However, 
in  places  in  the  Chaco  the  quebracho  chiefly  abounds. 

Other  woods  found  in  the  eastern  forest  are  ibiraro,  close 
grained  and  flexible,  the  best  for  wheels,  which  made  of  this 
wood  last  for  years  without  tires,  excellent  also  for  boat  and 
ship  building;  the  caranday  or  black  palm  30  feet  high,  used 


PARAGUAY  347 

for  telegraph  poles  and  scaffolding;  palo  de  rosa  (rosewood), 
a  mahogany  used  for  cigar  boxes ;  the  tatum,  good  for  clothes 
boxes,  being  obnoxious  to  insects;  and  many  more,  valuable 
but  little  known.  Also  there  are  fibre  plants,  ramie,  jute,  etc. 

Yerba  mate,  although  now  to  some  extent  cultivated,  is 
chiefly  a  forestal  product.  Once  known  as  Paraguay  tea, 
it  is  a  famous  product  of  the  country,  and  in  some  sections 
the  most  important. 

The  trees  or  shrubs  grow  wild  in  the  forest  to  a  height 
of  10-25  feet;  from  these  the  bright  green  leaves  are  gath- 
ered from  which  the  tea  is  made.  How  to  propagate  the 
trees  was  for  years  a  mystery,  but  it  is  now  known  that 
soaking  the  seed  in  hot  water  will  promote  germination. 
If  planted  in  tiny  wooden  boxes  with  no  bottom,  9  inches 
deep,  the  roots  may  be  transplanted  without  injury.  A 
tree  comes  into  bearing  in  five  years,  but  reaches  full  pro- 
duction only  after  12  years.  Some  plantations  have  been 
established  on  the  Alto  Parana,  but  the  greater  part  of  the 
mate  comes  from  the  virgin  forest.  The  natural  trees  in  the 
forest  grow  better  if  that  is  cleared  of  underbrush  and  of  the 
larger  trees.  When  full  grown  they  can  endure  5-6  cuttings 
a  year  without  permanent  harm. 

The  Industrial  Paraguay,  with  a  capital  of  $5,000,000,  is 
said  to  export  about  75  per  cent  of  the  total.  This  Company 
holding  a  property  of  8400  square  miles,  was  the  first  to  under- 
take on  a  considerable  scale  the  cultivation  of  yerba  mate  in 
plantations.  Their  largest  is  in  the  north  at  Nueva  Germania 
on  the  River  Acaray.  Barthe  and  Company,  with  a  property 
of  3000  square  miles,  has  a  plantation  near  Nacunday  on  the 
Parana  River  with  1,400,000  trees  producing,  and  1,000,000 
more  immature.  The  plantations  of  28,000  acres  will  soon 
supply  5,700,000  pounds  a  year.  Mate  sold  in  1918  at  &-io 
cents  a  pound.  In  that  year  cultivated  trees  produced  6,700,000 
pounds,  and  the  natural  17,200,000  pounds.  Chatas,  flat  boats, 
carry  the  dried  leaves  down  stream  to  river  ports  where  they 
are  taken  by  steamers  to  Asuncion,  Posadas,  Corrientes,  or 


848  THE  EAST  COAST 

Buenos  Aires  to  be  ground.  The  Industrial  has  two  ports  on 
the  Parana  and  one  on  the  Acaray,  with  mills  in  Asuncion, 
Corrientes,  and  Buenos  Aires.  La  Matte  Larangeira,  a  Bra- 
zilian Company,  has  some  yerbales  in  North  Paraguay,  but 
more  in  Matto  Grosso. 

Ten  to  twelve  million  persons  in  South  America  drink  mate, 
though  tea  and  coffee  are  more  fashionable  in  the  large  cities. 
Its  use  was  spreading  in  Europe  before  the  War,  but  few 
persons  in  the  United  States  are  acquainted  with  its  virtues. 
Containing  less  tannin,  it  is  more  healthful  than  tea  or  coffee, 
is  soothing  to  the  nervous  system,  and  beneficial  to  digestion 
unless  taken  to  excess.  When  used  instead  of  food  it  becomes 
injurious.  It  is  much  drunk  on  the  plains  of  Argentina,  coun- 
teracting the  effects  of  an  excessive  meat  diet.  It  may  be  made 
like  tea,  but  in  its  native  haunts,  the  powder  is  put  into  a  gourd 
called  a  mate,  boiling  water  is  poured  on,  and  after  steeping 
the  liquid  is  drunk  with  a  bombilla,  a  tube  ending  in  an  oval 
ball,  with  small  holes  to  admit  the  liquid,  but  supposed  to  keep 
out  the  yerba. 

AGRICULTURE 

Tobacco,  largely  cultivated  in  Paraguay,  is  the  most  im- 
portant agricultural  product  with  the  first  place  in  foreign 
trade.  Almost  every  one  smokes  large  cigars,  even  women 
and  girls.  The  leaves  are  divided  into  seven  classes:  the 
first  class  called  pito  containing  2^2  per  cent  of  nicotine, 
the  seventh  class  7  per  cent.  The  first  four  classes  are  used 
in  Europe  as  fillers,  the  last  three  in  Argentina  as  wrappers, 
having  larger,  stronger  leaves.  The  tobacco  is  mainly  from 
Havana  seed  introduced  in  1900.  The  leaves  are  dried  and 
fermented,  and  made  into  various  types  of  cigars,  or  shipped 
in  crude  form  to  Europe,  formerly  the  most  to  Germany, 
later  to  France  and  Spain.  Of  one  crop  of  7000  tons  4000 
went  to  Europe,  there  sold  under  different  names.  In 
Argentina  and  Uruguay  the  cigars  and  cigarettes  are  pop- 
ular under  the  name  of  Paraguay. 


PARAGUAY  349 

Small  Farm  Products.  Agriculture  is  naturally  impor- 
tant for  home  consumption,  but  aside  from  tobacco  and 
oranges  the  exports  are  slight.  As  almost  everything  will 
grow  in  the  rich  soil,  with  increasing  population  agriculture 
will  become  a  great  source  of  wealth.  Mandioca  and  corn 
are  staple  for  the  small  farmer,  the  latter  of  two  varieties, 
a  hard  white  and  a  soft  yellow,  the  former  of  especial  excel- 
lence both  for  nutriment,  and  withstanding  the  ravages  of 
the  grain  weevil.  Three  crops  a  year  may  be  raised  from  one 
variety  of  sweet  corn.  White  potatoes  flourish,  though  not 
so  well  as  sweet,  no  great  hardship.  Beans,  peanuts,  millet, 
and  various  European  vegetables  are  raised  for  home  con- 
sumption. Wheat  is  experimental.  Coffee  does  fairly  but 
is  often  injured  by  frost;  alfalfa  not  so  well  as  in  Argentina. 
Rotation  of  crops  is  unknown  and  few  implements  are  em- 
ployed. Life  is  so  easy  that  the  small  farmer  is  rather  shift- 
less, and  practically  nothing  is  done  on  a  large  scale. 

Oranges,  grown  by  every  one,  are  the  most  noteworthy 
of  the  many  varieties  of  fruit  produced  in  Paraguay,  but 
high  freight  rates  make  them  less  profitable  than  they  should 
be.  They  grow  freely  and  are  exported  in  large  numbers 
to  Argentina  and  Uruguay,  200,000,000  in  1919;  they  have 
been  called  the  best  in  the  world.  However,  they  do  not 
keep  well,  and  being  carelessly  packed  many  are  spoiled  in 
transportation.  The  introduction  of  hardier  varieties  is 
talked  of. 

Sugar  finds  excellent  soil  but  is  liable  to  suffer  from 
frost  or  drought.  It  is  grown  mostly  in  the  north  near  the 
rivers,  railways,  and  factories.  There  are  at  least  seven 
mills,  two  at  Villa  Hayes  in  the  Chaco,  one  at  Concepcion. 
Some  small  mills  make  brown  sugar  and  cana;  387,500  tons 
were  produced  in  1918.  About  20,000  acres  were  cultivated 
in  1919,  but  some  sugar  is  imported.  The  methods  have 
been  crude  but  are  improving. 

Cotton.  Good  cotton  land  exists  especially  in  the  south- 
west, and  in  the  Chaco.  An  indigenous  tree  bears  10-12 


350  THE  EAST  COAST 

years.  The  staple  is  of  good  length  and  quality.  Not 
enough  is  produced  to  supply  the  home  market,  but  its 
culture  is  increasing.  A  Belgian  obtained  annually  1000 
pounds  an  acre  for  six  years.  At  present  the  seed  is  not 
utilized. 

Rice  is  grown  on  low  ground  between  the  Paraguay 
River  and  the  railway.  Two  crops  a  year  may  be  raised 
giving  2000  pounds  to  the  acre,  a  quantity  which  might  be 
nearly  doubled.  The  coconut  palm,  peanut,  and  castor  bean 
flourish. 

THE  STOCK  INDUSTRY 

Cattle  raising  is  beginning  to  be  very  profitable  in  Para- 
guay as  in  the  neighboring  countries;  and  here  there  is  a 
chance  for  the  small  capitalist.  Formerly  some  live  cattle 
were  exported,  but  ten  times  as  many  hides;  also  dried 
meat  from  saladeros.  During  the  Great  War  operations  were 
carried  on  by  three  American  companies.  A  plant  at  San 
Salvador,  nearly  three  hundred  miles  above  Asuncion,  for 
slaughtering  cattle  and  putting  up  canned  meat,  was  con- 
ducted by  Morris ;  another  by  Swift  5  miles  above  the  Capi- 
tal, where  over  900,000  six-pound  cans  of  meat  were  put  up 
in  1918.  But  with  the  conclusion  of  the  War  the  demand 
fell  off  so  rapidly  that  both  plants  are  closed  and  dis- 
mantled. 

A  third  establishment,  however,  at  San  Antonio,  15 
miles  below  the  Capital,  is  actively  engaged  and  about  to 
increase  its  output.  The  International  Products  Company 
has  a  thoroughly  modern  equipment,  a  real  frigorlfico,  for  the 
export  of  frozen  meat,  with  a  capacity  of  175,000  head  of 
cattle  a  year,  to  be  shipped  to  Buenos  Aires  and  Europe. 
The  cattle  are  in  part  purchased  from  individual  farmers, 
but  the  Company  has  a  large  property  where  its  own  pro- 
duction is  increasing.  Nearly  300  leagues  of  land  are  owned 
back  of  Puerto  Pinasco  in  the  Chaco:  one  half  for  cattle 


PARAGUAY  351 

grazing  and  half  quebracho  lands.  They  have  600  miles 
of  barbed  wire  and  a  herd  of  70,000  with  some  blooded 
stock.  The  western  section  is  used  for  young  cattle  which 
are  moved  east  the  third  year  for  fattening.  The  Company 
besides  tugs  and  lighters  for  the  transport  of  the  cattle 
has  two  refrigerating  steamers  to  carry  the  frozen  meat 
to  Buenos  Aires.  The  hides  increase  the  value  of  the  pro- 
duction. 

The  native  cattle  are  far  better  than  the  Texas  Long- 
horn,  but  not  equal  to  the  blooded  stock  of  Argentina.  They 
weigh  850-1000  pounds  and  afford  excellent  beef.  The 
Argentine  is  heavier  but  called  coarser  than  that  of  the 
United  States.  The  Paraguay  stock  is  now  being  improved 
especially  with  Herefords.  A  50  per  cent  increase  of  the 
herd  is  general.  It  is  estimated  that  the  number  of  cattle 
in  Paraguay  is  now  5,000,000,  and  that  40,000,000  may  be 
easily  supported.  The  native  grasses  are  good,  and  the 
jaragud  from  Brazil  is  used.  Stock  may  be  bought  at  $15  a 
head,  perhaps  less  in  large  numbers,  affording  the  best  pos- 
sible opportunity  for  the  small  capitalist.  The  dairy  in- 
dustry is  slight,  the  native  cows  being  poor  milkers. 

The  Chaco  land  near  the  River  is  liable  to  floods  but  few 
cattle  are  lost  as  there  is  usually  time  to  drive  them  back 
20-30  miles  to  the  second  and  higher  zone  beyond  the  dan- 
ger. It  has  been  said  that  cattle  covered  with  ticks  east  of 
the  Paraguay  on  crossing  into  the  Chaco  soon  become  free 
of  them.  A  French  company  in  1919  had  150,000  head  of 
cattle  with  over  500  Hereford  bulls,  a  breeding  stock  of 
more  than  100,000.  One  thousand  miles  of  pasture  were 
enclosed.  The  Company  makes  use  of  130  telephones,  has 
shops,  a  tannery,  etc.  Besides  Herefords  there  are  Durhams 
and  Polled  Angus.  Two  hundred  men  are  in  charge  of  the 
stock.  The  natives  make  good  cowboys,  better  I  was  told 
than  some  Americans  who  went  down  from  here  a  few 
years  ago. 

Other  Stock.     As  to  other  stock,  horses  are  compara- 


352  THE  EAST  COAST 

tively  few,  not  one  tenth  of  the  number  of  cattle,  hardly 
enough  for  home  use.  They  are  liable  to  disease  and  do  not 
thrive  in  the  Chaco,  better  east  of  the  River.  Mules  serve 
well  though  smaller  than  in  the  United  States.  Horses  are 
outnumbered  by  sheep,  which  are  valuable  for  meat,  though 
mutton  is  not  favored  by  the  natives.  The  climate  is  obvi- 
ously warm  for  sheep  and  their  fleece  is  light.  New  stock 
must  be  introduced.  Hogs  and  goats  thrive  better. 

MINING 

Iron,  34  per  cent  pure,  was  produced  at  Ibicuy,  1863-69. 
Indications  of  it  are  widespread  near  the  Alto  Parana,  and 
near  Caapaca,  Quiquio,  and  Paraguari. 

Manganese  runs  63  per  cent  in  beds  of  60,000,000  tons. 
Copper  exists  near  Encarnacion  and  Caapaca.  There  are 
large  beds  of  good  stone,  talc,  graphite,  kaolin.  Probably 
petroleum  will  be  found  in  the  Chaco. 

MANUFACTURING 

Manufacturing  is  non-existent,  aside  from  the  quebracho 
and  sugar  mills,  save  for  a  few  necessities  of  life,  as  by 
many  regarded.  Beer  comes  first  with  the  largest  invest- 
ment of  capital,  flour  mills  next,  then  boots  and  shoes,  fur- 
niture, brick,  tiles,  matches,  hard  and  soft  drinks,  soap,  vege- 
table oils,  etc.  The  opportunities  are  vast  for  the  develop- 
ment of  electric  power.  Labor  in  general  is  fair  and  loyal, 
undeveloped,  but  with  good  intelligence.  The  men  lack 
steadiness  and  a  feeling  of  responsibility.  There  has  been 
less  labor  trouble  than  in  Argentina  and  Chile,  but  men 
from  Argentina  have  been  attempting  to  unionize  them. 
Strikes  are  common.  Wages  are  from  50  cents  to  $3.00  a 
day,  the  lower  with  quarters.  At  the  frigonficos  $1.00  is  paid 
with  free  rent,  for  ten  hours'  daily  work. 


PARAGUAY  353 

INVESTMENTS 

Perhaps  no  other  country  of  South  America  presents  to 
the  small  farmer  and  willing  worker,  with  or  without  small 
capital,  openings  more  favorable  than  Paraguay,  if  equal  to 
these.  Some  stock  raising  for  local  use  or  for  the  packing 
houses  might  gradually  be  added  to  agriculture.  The  dairy 
industry  ought  to  be  profitable.  Fruit  raising  for  export  or 
for  canning  is  undoubtedly  of  excellent  promise ;  a  large  prop- 
osition of  this  nature  is  now  being  considered  by  an  American 
corporation.  Saw  mills  and  lumbering  would  give  good  returns. 
Small  industries,  well  managed,  might  afford  fair  earnings. 
For  quebracho,  yerba  mate,  or  large  scale  stock  raising,  much 
capital  is  required,  yet  a  modest  sum  here  might  go  farther  for 
stock  than  in  any  other  country.  Thousands  of  acres  of  land 
suited  to  agriculture  are  available  for  colonists  in  accordance 
with"  their  liberal  colonization  and  homestead  laws.  The  price 
goes  from  $i  to  $13  an  acre.  Grazing  land  costs  $2-$5,  agri- 
cultural $5-$2o,  Chaco  land  $i-$2.5O  an  acre.  Special  ar- 
rangements are  made  for  and  with  a  party  of  colonists  as  in 
all  of  the  countries. 


CHAPTER  XLII 

URUGUAY:    AREA,    HISTORY,    GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

Uruguay,  still  occasionally  called  the  Banda  Oriental  (the 
land  east  of  the  Uruguay  River),  is  the  smallest  Republic  of 
South  America. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  With  an  area  of  72,172  square  miles,  Uruguay  is 
larger  than  New  England. 

Population.  The  country  has  now  about  1,500,000  in- 
habitants. 

Boundary.  Uruguay  is  nearly  surrounded  by  water, 
having  the  Atlantic  Ocean  for  120  miles  on  the  east.  The 
river  or  estuary  of  La  Plata  235  miles  on  the  south,  and  the 
Uruguay  270  miles  on  the  west,  both  separate  the  country 
from  Argentina;  on  the  north  and  east  between  Uruguay 
and  Brazil  three  rivers  and  Lake  Mirim  form  the  boundary 
most  of  the  way,  with  the  Santa  Hills  for  some  distance. 

HISTORY 

In  1512  the  explorer,  Juan  de  Soils,  entered  the  gulf -like 
River  Plata  and  landed  upstream,  70  miles  beyond  Monte- 
video. Here  were  found  Charrua  Indians,  accounted  by  the 
Guaranis  rather  ferocious.  On  his  next  visit,  1515-16,  Juan 
de  Solis  was  slain  by  them  with  all  his  party  that  had  gone 
on  shore.  It  was  many  years  later  that  permanent  settle- 
ments were  made  in  this  region  by  Portuguese  or  Spaniards 
and  not  until  1726  was  the  city  of  Montevideo  founded  by 
Spaniards.  In  1777  a  r^va"  Portuguese  settlement  was  driven 
out  by  General  Zavala  of  Buenos  Aires.  Subsequent  to  1750 

354 


URUGUAY  355 

Montevideo  was  independent  of  Buenos  Aires.  After  the 
Junta  was  formed  in  that  city  in  1810  the  Spanish  Viceroy 
for  a  short  time  had  his  seat  at  Montevideo ;  but  the  people 
soon  became  eager  for  independence.  Under  Artigas  they 
waged  war  for  years  against  the  Spanish,  the  Portuguese, 
and  also  the  Portenos  of  Buenos  Aires.  When  in  1824  the 
power  of  Spain  was  finally  destroyed  in  Peru,  Uruguay  alone 
was  not  independent.  Accordingly  a  refugee  in  Buenos 
Aires,  Lavalleja,  with  others,  33  in  all  (Treinta  y  Tres,  a 
popular  name  in  Uruguay),  set  out  from  Argentina,  crossed 
the  Uruguay  River,  gained  adherents,  captured  Dolores,  and 
August  25,  1825,  established  a  government  at  Florida.  In 
August,  1828,  after  many  struggles  Brazil  and  Argentina 
both  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Uruguay ;  and  May, 
1829,  Lavalleja  entered  Montevideo.  In  1830  the  Assembly 
elected  Rivera  President,  after  which  Lavalleja  tried  to  over- 
throw the  Government.  Under  the  second  President,  Uribe, 
one  of  the  33,  a  battle  occurred  when  the  colors  red  and 
white  were  used  by  the  opposing  parties,  from  which  date 
the  two  parties:  Red,  Colorados,  party  of  Rivera;  Whites, 
Blancos,  of  Uribe  and  Lavalleja.  Strife  continued,  the 
deaths  of  the  leaders  making  no  difference  to  the  factions, 
and  the  parties  continuing  to  the  present  with  these  names. 
In  February,  1865,  Flores,  who  had  secured  the  support  of 
Brazil,  became  dictator,  but  Paraguay  having  been  previ- 
ously asked  to  interfere  continued  the  fight.  Flores  was 
assassinated,  in  1868  occurred  a  terrible  visitation  of  cholera, 
and  in  '69  a  financial  crisis  that  ruined  thousands.  Troubles 
continued ;  until  within  the  last  few  years  no  President  has 
had  an  entirely  peaceful  term.  In  view  of  this  fact  the 
development  and  prosperity  of  the  country  has  been  re- 
markable. 

GOVERNMENT 

The  government  of  the  country  is  that  of  a  centralized 
republic  with  the  usual  divisions;  the  President  is  elected 


356 


THE  EAST  COAST 


for  four  years  and  not  eligible  for  reelection.  The  new  Con- 
stitution which  began  to  operate  March  I,  1920,  is  unusually 
radical  in  character,  a  tendency  observed  in  Uruguay  some 
years  ago.  The  Executive  Power  is  shared  by  the  President 
and  a  National  Commission  of  nine  members  elected  by  the 
people.  Some  Members  of  the  Cabinet  are  appointed  by  the 
President,  others  by  the  Commission.  Congress  elects  the 
members  of  the  Supreme  Court,  approves  or  rejects  treaties. 


DEPARTMENTS 

AREA, 
in  square 
miles 

POPULA- 
TION 

CAPITALS 

POPULA- 
TION 

On  the  Uruguay  River 
Artigas                    .    .  . 

4.4OO 

17,000 

San  Eugenio  

o.ooo 

Salto                     

4.QOO 

69,000 

Salto  

30,000 

Paysandii  

5.IOO 

63,000 

Paysandu  

22,000 

Rio  Negro                 .  .  • 

1,200 

30,000 

Fray  Bentos  

12,000 

1.600 

52,000 

Mercedes  

18,000 

On  the  Plata  River 
Colon  i  a  

2  2OO 

78  ooo 

Colonia 

T  5  OOO 

San  Jose1  

2  7OO 

56  ooo 

San  Jose" 

I  5  OOO 

Montevideo  

2<;6 

400  ooo 

A-iC  noo 

Canelones  

I  800 

I  IO  OOO 

Canelones 

IO  OOO 

Maldonado  

I  600 

38  ooo 

Maldonado 

On  the  Atlantic 
Rocha  

4  ooo 

Bordering  on  Brazil 

4i3°° 
3,700 

38,000 

Treintay  Tres  

8,000 

5,800 

55,000 

Melo  

14,000 

1.800 

44.000 

Rivera  

1  5,000 

Rivera  

In  the  Interior 
Tacuaremb6  

8,100 

58,000 

San  Pructuoso  

Q.OOO 

Durazno  

S.soo 

51.000 

Durazno  

I7,OOO 

Flores    

I.  TOO 

IT,  OOO 

Trinidad  

I3,6OO 

Florida  

4.6OO 

55.000 

Florida  «... 

IO.OOO 

Minas  /  

4.f8oo 

64,000 

Minas  

I5,OOO 

URUGUAY  357 

Bills  may  be  presented  to  either  Chamber  by  Cabinet  Mem- 
bers, who  may  take  part  in  deliberations  or  be  summoned 
by  a  vote  of  one  third  to  answer  questions.  A  permanent 
committee,  two  Senators  and  five  Deputies,  represents  Con- 
gress when  it  is  not  in  session,  and  has  power  to  convoke  it. 
The  19  Departments  or  States  with  approximate  area, 
population,  and  capitals,  beginning  at  the  northwest,  are 
given  on  the  preceding  page. 

POPULATION 

The  population  of  Uruguay,  about  1,500,000,  is  prac- 
tically of  the  Caucasian  race  with  slight  intermixture  of 
Indian  and  Negro.  The  Indian  tribes  previously  inhabiting 
the  country  were  mostly  exterminated,  a  few  departing  into 
adjoining  regions,  a  few  of  the  milder  tribes  being  absorbed 
by  their  conquerors.  In  the  north  are  some  negroes  near 
the  Brazilian  border  and  some  of  mixed  blood.  More  than 
any  other  country  of  South  America  Uruguay  is  inhabited 
by  a  homogeneous  white  population. 

EDUCATION 

A  fine  educational  system  has  been  developed,  with 
primary  and  graded  schools  throughout  the  country,  so  that 
hardly  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  population  is  illiterate. 
Primary  education  is  free  and  obligatory.  In  the  Capital 
is  a  well  equipped  University  with  the  usual  Departments, 
including  Engineering  and  Architecture;  a  School  of  Arts 
and  Trades,  kindergartens,  and  two  Normal  Schools;  six 
of  the  latter  are  found  in  other  cities.  In  the  suburb  of 
Montevideo  is  a  School  of  Agriculture ;  four  model  farms  are 
located  at  Colonia,  Salto,  Paysandu,  and  Cerro  Largo. 

PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

The  Press  is  of  high  character  with  a  number  of  good 
papers  in  Montevideo,  and  some  in  other  cities. 


358  THE  EAST  COAST 

The  Religion,  of  course,  is  Roman  Catholic,  although 
there  is  no  State  Church.  Complete  toleration  exists  for 
other  forms  of  worship. 

Telegraph,  etc.  The  Government  has  about  4800  miles 
of  telegraph  lines  and  four  wireless  stations.  Wireless  is 
compulsory  on  all  steamers  visiting  Uruguayan  ports. 
Telephones  belonging  to  two  private  companies  are  likely 
to  be  taken  over  by  the  Government;  19  towns  have  this 
convenience. 

Money.  The  gold  standard  was  long  ago  adopted,  but 
no  gold  was  coined  and  no  bullion  is  carried  by  the  State. 
In  spite  of  this  we  have  the  curious  fact  that  the  paper  peso 
is  equivalent  to  gold,  and  in  ordinary  times  to  $1.034  of  our 
money;  though  unhappily  when  once  I  received  some  of 
the  bills  here,  exchange  being  normal,  I  could  obtain  but 
90  cents  on  the  dollar  for  them.  One  broker  even  offered 
me  80  cents.  Subsidiary  coins  are  of  silver  and  nickel,  and 
a  silver  dollar  is  carried  at  par.  The  credit  of  Uruguay  is 
obviously  excellent,  and  its  bonds  are  often  above  par. 

Weights  and  Measures  according  to  the  metric  system 
are  obligatory.  The  importation  even  of  other  weighing 
apparatus  is  forbidden. 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

Uruguay  is  roughly  a  right-angled  triangle  in  shape,  its 
apex  at  the  northwest,  the  western  boundary  line  nearly 
perpendicular,  the  south  side  almost  at  right  angles  with 
it,  and  the  Brazilian  boundary  the  hypothenuse ;  with  a  little 
extra  piece  at  the  southeast  bordering  on  the  Atlantic.  For 
the  most  part  a  gently  rolling  country  well  suited  to  agricul- 
ture as  for  cattle  raising,  it  slopes  towards  the  east,  west, 
and  south;  having  rougher  and  higher  land  at  the  north, 
where  the  greatest  elevation  is  a  little  above  2000  feet.  A 
central  cross  depression  is  the  Valley  of  the  Rio  Negro. 
The  perimeter  of  Uruguay  measures  1148  miles,  of  which 


URUGUAY  359 

668  are  on  the  ocean  or  large  rivers.  The  country  is  well 
supplied  with  rivers,  some  of  which  are  navigable.  Besides 
the  Plata  and  Uruguay,  there  are  the  Negro,  Tacuara, 
Cebollati,  Climar,  and  the  Yaguaron;  also  Lake  Mirim. 
Besides  Mirim  on  the  Brazilian  border  there  are  a  few  lakes 
along  the  ocean  front;  a  few  islands  lie  off  the  coast.  The 
country  differs  from  the  Argentine  campo  in  having  plenty 
of  stone. 

CLIMATE 

Extending  from  30°  to  35°  South  Latitude  with  no  con- 
siderable elevation  and  being  close  to  the  sea,  Uruguay 
naturally  has  a  temperate  climate  with  no  great  variation 
over  its  limited  area.  The  temperature  generally  ranges 
from  40°  to  90°.  There  is  sufficient  rainfall,  about  40  inches, 
and  the  country  is  well  watered.  Its  coast  offers  agreeable 
places  for  summer  resorts,  which  are  patronized  both  by 
natives  and  by  Argentines.  The  country  in  general  has  a 
particularly  salubrious  climate,  244  sunny  days,  it  is  said, 
in  the  year. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

URUGUAY:  CAPITAL,  DEPARTMENTS,  CHIEF 
CITIES,  PORTS 

THE  CAPITAL 

Montevideo,  the  capital  and  chief  port  of  Uruguay,  with 
a  population  approaching  400,000,  is  a  pleasant  city,  a  more 
homelike  place  than  Buenos  Aires  and  preferred  as  a  resi- 
dence by  many,  though  doubtless  more  persons  enjoy  life 
better  in  the  larger  gayer  capital.  Favorably  situated  near 
the  entrance,  but  on  the  Plata  River,  on  a  peninsula  of  high 
ground  which  shelters  a  good  harbor  on  the  west,  while 
attractive  beaches  lie  on  the  side  towards  the  ocean,  Mon- 
tevideo is  in  some  respects  a  contrast  to  South  America's 
metropolis,  100  miles  distant,  on  the  other  shore.  With  fine 
drainage  facilities  it  is  a  clean  healthful  city,  well  lighted, 
and  well  served  by  electric  tramways.  Pure  water  is  brought 
a  distance  of  30  miles.  Though  with  fine  buildings,  theatres, 
broad,  well-paved  avenues  (150  miles  of  them),  open  squares, 
and  attractive  parks,  the  city  seems  quite  up  to  date,  yet 
somehow  a  trifle  old  fashioned,  with  an  agreeable  air  of 
solid  respectability.  The  hotels  are  comfortable,  but  only 
those  facing  the  beaches,  at  a  distance  from  the  business 
section,  are  really  of  the  first  class.  An  underground  tele- 
phone system  is  proposed. 

DEPARTMENTS 

Canelones  is  directly  north  and  east  of  Montevideo, 
extending  along  the  River  Plata.  In  proximity  to  the 
Capital  and  with  good  rail  connection,  fruit  growing  and 

360 


URUGUAY  361 

agriculture  are  important,  viticulture  is  common;  but  even 
here  the  pastoral  industry  leads.  Canelones  boasts  of 
several  towns  of  8000-10,000  population,  one  of  which,  Pando, 
a  pleasant  agricultural  centre,  is  connected  with  Montevideo 
by  a  good  macadamized  road. 

San  Jose,  west  of  Montevido  and  Canelones,  has  indus- 
tries similar  to  the  latter  with  timber  in  addition,  supply- 
ing wood  for  fuel  and  for  building. 

The  capital,  San  Jose,  with  a  population  of  15,000,  has 
the  distinction  of  being  the  largest  of  the  country  towns  as 
distinguished  from  the  ports.  It  has  a  good  macadam  road 
to  the  capital,  Montevideo,  60  miles,  and  an  up-to-date  flour 
mill. 

Colonia,  west  of  San  Jose,  running  up  to  the  entrance  of 
the  Uruguay,  is  called  the  richest  Department  of  the  Repub- 
lic. Agriculture,  dairy  farming,  fruit  and  viticulture  are 
well  developed;  its  stone  quarries  are  worked;  and  lying 
opposite  Buenos  Aires,  with  good  steamship  service  to  that 
city  as  well  as  rail  connection  with  Montevideo,  it  is  cer- 
tain of  increasing  prosperity. 

The  capital  city  of  Colonia  is  a  quiet  old  town  with 
historic  associations ;  a  new  town  three  miles  east  has  been 
created  as  a  pleasure  resort.  Colonia  Suiza,  with  4000 
people  and  many  Swiss  chalets,  is  devoted  to  the  dairy 
industry;  one  enterprising  proprietor  who  began  as  a  milk 
peddler  now  turns  out  from  his  factory  in  the  spring  one 
ton  of  butter  daily. 

Soriano  on  the  Uruguay  River,  nevertheless  has  its  chief 
town,  Mercedes,  population  18,000,  on  a  tributary,  the  Rio 
Negro,  here  one-fourth  of  a  mile  wide.  The  main  industry 
is  cattle  raising;  the  town  has  a  saladero  and  is  also  a 
centre  of  charcoal  making.  Stone  quarrying  is  carried  on 
in  the  Department  and  some  minerals  exist,  topaz  and 
amethyst  in  considerable  abundance.  A  peculiar  water  stone 
is  of  curious  and  undetermined  origin. 

Rio  Negro  follows  on  the  north  of  the  Negro  River,  the 


362  THE  EAST  COAST 

chief  centre  for  the  breeding  of  live  stock,  as  might  be 
expected  from  the  fact  that  the  capital  is  Fray  Bentos,  the 
original  home  of  the  Liebig  industry,  beginning  in  1865. 
The  company  now  owning  nearly  5,000,000  acres,  and  estab- 
lishments elsewhere,  Fray  Bentos  is  of  less  relative  impor- 
tance than  formerly;  yet  with  180,000  cattle  slaughtered 
here  in  a  single  season,  the  business  is  considerable.  It  is 
quite  a  model  town,  with  good  streets  and  homes  for 
employes,  schools,  etc. 

Paysandu,  the  next  Department  north,  has  a  larger 
population  of  which  the  capital  of  that  name  contains  nearly 
half,  22,000,  being  the  second  city  of  the  Republic  in  com- 
mercial importance.  Electric  lights  and  telephones  are  in 
service,  also  horse  cars.  Here  the  stream  narrows  and  this 
is  the  last  port  of  call  for  ocean  steamers.  The  chief  employ- 
ments in  the  Department  are  agricultural  and  pastoral; 
there  are  some  meat  curing  factories. 

Salto,  Department  and  city,  each  with  larger  population 
than  the  Department  south,  is  also  a  pastoral  region;  but 
it  is  rich  in  minerals,  and  is  an  important  wine  producing 
district,  where  a  great  variety  of  other  fruits,  including 
oranges,  flourish  well.  Here  the  Uruguay  River  is  bridged 
to  Concordia  in  Argentina,  an  important  railway  centre. 
This  is  called  the  head  of  navigation,  as  here  are  falls  and 
rocks,  but  smaller  boats  ply  the  river  above. 

Artigas,  the  most  northern  Department  with  a  long 
frontier  on  Argentina  and  Brazil  both,  has  some  railway 
service,  though  not  the  main  line  to  Brazil.  The  capital, 
Artigas,  population  10,000,  is  on  the  Brazilian  border.  This 
Department  has  more  timber,  hard  and  soft,  and  less  agri- 
culture and  grazing.  Some  districts  are  noted  for  minerals 
and  precious  stones. 

Rivera  is  next  along  the  Brazilian  border,  one  of  the 
largest  Departments.  The  capital,  population  15,000,  is  a 
clean,  well  paved  town,  of  growing  importance  as  the 
terminus  of  the  Central  Uruguay  Railway,  here  connect- 


URUGUAY  363 

ing  with  the  Brazilian  Railway  to  Sao  Paulo.  The  Depart- 
ment, though  thinly  peopled,  has  considerable  agriculture 
and  gold  mines  of  importance. 

Tacuarembo,  directly  south,  largest  of  all  the  Depart- 
ments, is  the  most  sparsely  populated.  It  is  chiefly  devoted 
to'  agriculture ;  tobacco  flourishes,  and  rice  culture  has  met 
with  some  success.  Gold  and  manganese  are  found. 

Cerro  Largo  next  to  Rivera  on  the  Brazilian  border  is 
chiefly  pastoral  with  agriculture  advancing.  Its  prosperity 
is  likely  to  increase  with  connection  with  Brazil  now 
planned  from  the  capital,  Melo,  14,000  population,  the 
present  railway  terminus. 

Treinta  y  Tres,  its  capital  with  8000  population,  is  chiefly 
pastoral  with  very  little  agriculture ;  it  is  well  wooded  with 
valuable  timber.  The  great  Lake  Mirim  along  the  eastern 
border  is  of  much  value,  and  further  railway  construction 
will  promote  development. 

Rocha,  south  of  Treinta  y  Tres,  has  also  a  long  eastern 
frontier  on  the  Lake,  a  bit  of  Brazil,  and  much  on  the 
Atlantic.  Grazing  is  the  chief  industry  with  some  viticul- 
ture. Seal  fishery  is  important,  and  there  are  minerals: 
copper,  gypsum,  alabaster,  marble,  jasper. 

Maldonado,  south  of  Rocha  and  east  of  Canelones,  also 
borders  on  the  ocean  at  the  southeast.  Chiefly  pastoral, 
the  Department  has  some  agriculture  and  wine  making. 
There  is  seal  fishing  on  the  islands  off  the  coast.  Timber 
will  soon  be  important  as  tree  planting  is  encouraged  by 
the  Government.  The  British  Consul  received  a  gold  medal 
for  planting  over  10,000  maritime  pines.  The  beginning 
was  difficult,  the  young  trees  being  continually  buried  in 
masses  of  sand.  Dunes  are  characteristic  of  this  coast. 
But  when  the  trees  were  once  established  continuance  was 
easy  and  now  100,000  or  more  are  flourishing  in  this  section. 
Others  followed  the  example,  making  land  formerly  worth- 
less now  rated  at  $5~$25  an  acre.  Piriapolis,  a  new  town 
west  of  the  capital  city,  is  a  remarkable  place  due  to  the 


364  THE  EAST  COAST 

patriotic  energy  of  Senor  Piria,  who  here  began  planting 
trees  over  20  years  ago.  These  are  now  a  forest,  with 
millions  of  trees,  seven  miles  of  eucalyptus  woodland 
stretching  from  the  Piria  castle  to  the  ocean,  near  which  a 
hotel  has  been  erected  and  chalets,  the  beginning  of  a 
prosperous  town  and  summer  resort.  A  railway  serves  this 
western  edge  of  Maldonado. 

Minas  is  back  of  Maldonado  and  west  of  Rocha.  It  has 
pastoral  and  agricultural  industries  with  a  good  endowment 
of  minerals. 

Florida,  west  of  Minas  and  north  of  Canelones,  abounds 
in  cattle  and  is  developing  agriculture. 

Durazno,  north,  in  the  centre  of  the  Republic,  is  also 
chiefly  devoted  to  cattle  raising. 

Flores,  west  of  Durazno,  is  not  well  populated  and  is 
chiefly  pastoral. 

PORTS 

Ocean  Ports.  The  only  ocean  port  of  importance  in 
Uruguay  is  Montevideo  and  this  indeed  is  on  the  Plata 
River.  It  ranks,  however,  among  the  best  in  South  America 
in  depth,  capacity,  and  ease  of  access,  admitting  ships  of  32- 
foot  draft  at  low  tide.  A  free  port  for  goods  in  transit, 
where  they  may  remain  a  year  in  the  Custom  House  without 
tax,  it  has  excellent  docks  and  harbor  works,  including 
ample  warehouses  and  facilities  for  handling  all  classes  of 
merchandise,  1400  tons  unloaded  in  ten  hours.  A  port  rail- 
way serves  to  connect  sea  and  land  traffic,  transferring 
passengers  as  well  as  freight  directly  from  steamers  to  rail- 
way cars.  The  port  works  constructed  by  the  French, 
concluded  for  the  most  part  before  the  War,  cost  in  the 
neighborhood  of  $40,000,000.  In  the  vicinity  a  Hotel  for 
Immigrants  accommodates  1000. 

Ships  of  many  lines  call  in  passing,  passenger  steamers 
for  Buenos  Aires  and  many  which  do  not  go  up  the  river, 


URUGUAY  365 

either  because  of  too  heavy  draft,  or  to  save  time  when  on 
the  way  to  the  West  Coast  or  to  other  ports.  For  some 
this  is  the  ultimate  destination.  Nightly  trips  between  the 
two  great  cities  are  made  by  steamers  of  the  Mihanovich 
Line,  which  rival  all  but  the  finest  plying  between  New 
York  and  Boston.  Smaller  steamers  sail  from  here  or  pause 
on  their  way  up  the  Uruguay,  or  the  Parana  and  the  Para- 
guay, the  latter  perhaps  going  through  to  Corumba,  1800 
miles,  those  for  the  Uruguay  at  most  300  miles  to  Salto  or 
Concordia. 

River  Ports.  Montevideo  would  strictly  come  under 
this  head.  Others  of  importance  are  Colonia  on  the  Plata 
and  Paysandii  on  the  Uruguay,  to  which  ocean  steamers  of 
14-foot  draft  may  ascend;  to  Salto  beyond,  steamers  of  8- 
foot  draft.  Above  the  rapids  at  Salto  on  the  Uruguay  and 
on  a  few  of  its  branches  smaller  steamboats  and  other  craft 
are  used.  The  Rio  Negro  is  navigable  50  miles  to  the 
town  of  Mercedes.  The  entire  fluvial  navigation  is  700 
miles.  The  Uruguay  Navigation  Company  with  a  capital 
of  $10,000,000  has  recently  been  organized  for  traffic  on  the 
Plata,  Parana,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay  Rivers. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 

URUGUAY:  TRANSPORTATION,  RESOURCES 
AND  INDUSTRIES 

RAILWAYS 

Even  more  than  in  Argentina  the  railways  have  been 
developed  by  British  capital.  The  first  concession  in  1865 
was  for  a  road  from  Montevideo  to  the  Rio  Negro.  Con- 
struction has  been  more  expensive  than  on  the  plains  of 
the  neighboring  Republic,  on  account  of  rolling  country 
and  the  many  bridges  required,  over  300.  There  is  a  single 
tunnel,  in  the  Department  Rocha.  Happily  all  of  the  rail- 
ways are  of  the  same  gauge,  the  standard,  4  feet  8jE^  inches. 
The  length  of  those  in  operation  is  1680  miles,  the  greatest 
in  proportion  to  area  of  any  country  in  South  America. 

The  Central  Uruguay,  with  its  extensions,  is  the  main 
line  from  which  most  of  the  others  branch.  The  original 
ran  from  Montevideo  to  the  Rio  Negro  in  the  centre  of  the 
Republic,  from  which  it  was  prolonged  to  the  northern 
border  at  Rivera.  In  May,  1917,  closer  connection  was 
established  with  Sant'  Anna,  across  the  Brazilian  border, 
and  sleeping  car  service  to  Sao  Paulo  in  4^2  days,  which 
should  shortly  be  3^2.  The  prolongation  is  called  the 
Northern  Extension.  The  Eastern  Extension  starts  at 
Toledo,  16  miles  from  Montevideo,  diverging  to  San  Ramon, 
Nico  Perez,  and  Melo,  with  a  branch  from  Nico  Perez,  to 
Treinta  y  Tres,  311  miles  in  all.  The  Western  Extension 
runs  from  San  Jose  on  a  branch  of  the  Central,  to  Mai 
Abrigo  and  Mercedes.  From  Abrigo  a  line  goes  to  Rosario 

366 


URUGUAY  367 

and  Puerto  del  Sauce,  and  from  Rosario  on  to  Colonia, 
altogether  211  miles. 

Other  roads  are  the  Midland  and  the  Northwestern,  the 
former  connecting  with  the  Central  near  the  Rio  Negro, 
passing  west  to  Paysandu,  then  north  to  Salto,  while  the 
Northwestern  runs  113  miles  from  Salto  to  Cabellos,  then 
northwest  to  the  corner  of  the  Republic,  there  connecting 
by  an  international  bridge  across  the  Cuareim  River  with 
Quarahim,  Brazil,  and  its  Great  Southern  Railway  running 
northward.  At  Salto  there  is  considerable  interchange  of 
traffic  with  Argentina  through  Concordia  opposite,  an 
important  railway  junction  and  city.  At  Cabellos  connec- 
tion is  made  with  the  Uruguay  Northern,  another  road 
running  to  the  Brazilian  Boundary,  the  terminus  San 
Eugenio. 

The  Uruguay  East  Coast  Railway  with  78  miles  of  road, 
starting  from  Olmas  on  the  Central  Uruguay  runs  to  Mal- 
donado.  Much  of  the  traffic  is  to  the  seaside  resorts,  Puente 
del  Este  and  Piriapolis;  there  is  also  considerable  freight 
for  the  Montevideo  market,  of  agricultural  and  pastoral 
products  and  fish.  An  extension  northward  from  San 
Carlos  to  Rocha  is  authorized.  The  road  has  been  purchased 
by  the  Government.  A  line  from  Durazno  on  the  Central 
to  Trinidad,  begun  by  the  Farquhar-Pearson  Syndicate  as 
part  of  a  line  designed  to  cross  the  country  diagonally  from 
Colonia  to  the  Brazilian  border,  was  taken  over  by  the 
Government,  which  has  in  view  the  securing  of  a  system 
of  State  railways.  Besides  building  the  31-mile  line  from 
San  Carlos  on  the  East  Coast  Railway  it  intends  purchas- 
ing the  23-mile  line  from  Rocha  to  the  port  Paloma.  Fur- 
ther needed  construction  is  planned  by  the  Government  as 
soon  as  may  be  practicable. 

Aeroplane  service  is  to  be  installed  by  a  British  company 
from  Montevideo  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Pernambuco,  and 
aerial  postal  service  is  planned  for  the  interior. 


368  THE  EAST  COAST 

RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

Stock  raising  is  by  far  the  leading  industry,  as  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that  in  1917  nearly  98  per  cent  of  the  exports 
were  of  stock  products.  Of  the  44  million  acres  devoted  to 
livestock  and  agriculture  the  latter  occupies  hardly  5  per  cent. 
In  1603,  100  cattle  and  two  herds  of  horses  were  brought 
into  the  country;  the  cattle  increased  so  rapidly  that  at  one 
time  they  were  killed  for  their  hides,  as  more  recently  in 
Paraguay.  Since  1860  when  Durham  bulls  were  imported 
and  stock  breeding  began,  much  advance  has  been  made  in 
quality.  Herefords,  Devon,  a  few  Polled  Angus  and  others 
have  also  been  imported;  some  for  dairy  purposes,  as  Swiss 
and  Flemish.  In  1917  the  cattle  numbered  about  8,000,000. 
The  best  estancias  have  sheds  to  house  pedigreed  stock,  they 
plant  trees  and  have  cattle  dips.  Societies  encourage  scientific 
breeding  and  the  Government  subsidizes  agricultural  shows. 
One  estancia  of  60,000  acres  has  15,000  cattle,  20,000  sheep, 
some  horses,  and  pays  dividends  of  16-25  per  cent  on  a  capital 
of  £120,000.  Another  company  with  40,000  acres  and  a  capital 
of  £40,000  pays  dividends  of  14-20  per  cent.  At  least  20,000 
acres  are  devoted  to  dairy  farming ;  50,000  pounds  of  butter  are 
made  monthly,  and  both  butter  and  cheese  are  exported.  The 
best  of  apparatus  is  employed. 

Sheep,  imported  from  Argentina  in  1608,  flourish  to  the 
number  of  11,700,000;  the  varieties  of  Merino,  Lincoln, 
Romney  Marsh  are  found  among  others,  the  English  breeds 
being  preferred. 

Horses  of  good  quality  are  raised,  570,000,  both  light  and 
heavy,  but  few  in  comparison  to  the  cattle.  There  are  300,000 
pigs,  a  few  mules,  16,000,  and  12,000  goats. 

Meat  Packing.  In  1754  the  first  meat  salting  plant  was 
established  but  the  true  pioneer  dates  from  1786.  Others 
followed.  There  are  now  13  besides  seven  factories  for  pre- 
serving meat  and  two  frigorificos.  The  slaughter  season  is 
from  November  to  January,  The  meat  for  saladeros  is 


URUGUAY  369 

separated  from  the  bones,  dried  4-6  days  in  the  sun,  and  then 
salted.  It  is  arranged  in  four  grades  according  to  fat  or  lean ; 
the  fat  meat  is  sent  to  Brazil,  the  lean  to  Cuba  and  elsewhere. 

Of  frigorificos  the  Swifts  own  one,  and  exported  to  Europe 
in  1915  and  1916,  each,  over  700,000  frozen  quarters  of  beef 
and  100,000  chilled;  also  mutton  and  lamb.  The  Frigorifica 
Uruguaya  shipped  nearly  44,000,000  pounds  of  beef  to  Europe 
in  1916  and  over  2,000,000  pounds  of  mutton.  The  total 
export  of  animal  products  shipped  in  1916  was  worth  $73,- 
000,000.  A  model  slaughter  house  and  cold  storage  plant 
is  in  prospect.  A  new  one  for  wool  washing  has  a  capacity 
of  132,000  pounds  daily.  Saving  in  freight  cost  and  im- 
munity from  deterioration  are  thereby  attained. 

The  Liebig  Extract  of  Beef  Company,  with  extensive 
holdings  in  and  near  Fray  Bentos  and  with  a  total  capital- 
ization of  £2,000,000  usually  pays  20  per  cent  dividends 
on  the  ordinary  shares;  5  per  cent  in  1916.  They  use  the 
best  of  meat,  and  their  Oxo  capsules  and  Lemco  have  a 
world-wide  reputation.  They  own  and  rent  in  Uruguay, 
Argentina,  and  Paraguay  1,120,000  acres. 

In  spite  of  strikes  and  labor  troubles  the  live-stock 
industry  has  brought  prosperity  to  the  country,  with  record 
prices  for  beef,  mutton,  hides,  and  wool,  thus  greatly  in- 
creasing land  values.  The  cattle  are  pastured  on  the  natural 
long  thick  grass,  very  little  alfalfa  being  cultivated.  Hogs, 
hens,  bees,  and  silkworms  are  raised.  The  seal  industry  and 
fisheries  are  important. 

AGRICULTURE 

The  agricultural  products  are  insufficient  for  the  use 
of  the  country  although  2,000,000  acres  are  in  cultivation. 
About  900,000  acres  are  in  wheat,  700,000  in  corn,  128,000 
in  flax,  100,000  oats,  some  barley  and  canary  seed.  In  1916 
agricultural  exports  were  valued  at  $1,500,000.  Among 
other  crops  are  tobacco,  which  is  especially  promising,  lin- 


S70  THE  EAST  COAST 

seed,  alfalfa,  sugar  cane,  some  cotton,  potatoes,  etc.  Viti- 
culture is  quite  extensive,  American  grapes  growing  better 
in  the  south,  and  French  and  Italian  in  the  north.  Other 
fruits,  oranges,  olives,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  peaches,  and 
melons  flourish. 

FORESTRY 

Forestry  is  encouraged  so  far  as  planting  is  concerned; 
about  1,000,000  acres  are  in  natural  forest  land.  Millions 
of  trees  have  been  planted  on  land  not  otherwise  useful. 
The  supply  of  wood  in  future  will  be  greatly  increased  and 
there  may  even  be  export. 

MINERALS 

Minerals  are  of  some  importance  and  may  become  of 
more.  The  country  is  believed  to  contain  considerable 
wealth  in  gold,  silver,  coal,  marble,  jasper;  and  in  other 
minerals  and  semi-precious  stones,  including  amethyst  and 
topaz.  There  is  little  export  save  sand,  stone  for  paving, 
and  similar  articles. 

Gold.  The  chief  gold  fields  are  in  the  Department 
Rivera  near  Cufiapiru  not  far  from  the  Brazilian  border. 
A  district  35-40  miles  long  and  7  wide  contains  auriferous 
reef  with  gold  5  ounces  to  the  ton;  if  deep  the  prospect  is 
limitless.  A  modern  English  plant  is  now  getting  out  gold. 
Bars  worth  $4000  were  exported  in  1915.  Four  hundred 
mines  have  been  denounced  in  the  Department.  Enormous 
quantities  of  manganese  are  in  the  neighborhood.  Gold  is 
found  also  in  Minas,  Salto,  and  Tacuarembo. 

Copper  exists  in  quantity  in  Cerro  Largo,  Maldonado, 
Minas,  Paysandu,  and  Salto.  Iron,  silver,  slate,  gypsum, 
asbestos,  lead,  etc.  may  be  exploited  later.  Even  greatly 
needed  coal  of  fair  quality  has  been  found  in  Montevideo, 
Santa  Lucia,  and  especially  in  Cerro  Largo  where  it  seems 
promising,  though  no  working  of  minerals  is  sufficiently 


URUGUAY  371 

developed  to  present  decisive  results.  Indications  of 
petroleum  have  been  noted  at  the  north,  the  strata  coming 
in  from  Brazil. 

MANUFACTURES 

Naturally  manufacturing  save  for  home  consumption  is 
of  slight  importance,  except  of  products  of  the  pastoral 
industry,  as  of  dairies  and  of  meat  extract.  For  home  use 
there  are  115  flour  mills,  45  others,  as  of  hardware,  soap, 
macaroni ;  I  sugar  factory,  3  starch,  I  cement,  4  breweries. 
Many  of  these  are  in  Montevideo.  The  Government  proposes 
the  construction  of  chemical  factories  for  the  produc- 
tion of  sulphuric,  nitric,  carbolic,  and  acetic  acid,  glycerine, 
benzol,  alcohol,  sulphuric  ether,  etc.,  and  a  powder  and 
explosive  factory;  these  to  cost  over  $2,000,000,  material 
and  machinery  to  enter  free  of  duty. 

An  important  project  of  the  Government  is  the  develop- 
ment of  water  power  from  the  cataracts  of  the  Uruguay 
River,  which  will  be  equivalent  to  3,000,000  tons  of  coal  per 
annum.  Two  dams  are  planned,  one  movable  and  one  fixed, 
with  canals  by  which  419  miles  of  river  will  be  open  to 
navigation  from  the  lower  section.  Irrigation  is  included 
in  the  project,  and  37,000  acres  near  Montevideo  are  to  be 
irrigated  as  an  illustration.  Fifteen  cities  have  authorized 
work  in  connection  with  this  project 

INVESTMENTS 

Aside  from  the  development  of  hydro-electric  power  and 
the  construction  of  public  works  of  various  kinds  including 
railways,  it  is  probable  that  agriculture  and  fisheries  present 
the  most  favorable  openings,  with  good  possibilities  also 
in  manufacturing  industries,  stone  cutting,  and  mining. 
Stock  raising  is  already  pretty  well  developed. 


CHAPTER  XLV 

BRAZIL:  AREA,  HISTORY,  GOVERNMENT, 
POPULATION,  ETC. 

The  country  of  Brazil,  largest  of  the  South  American 
Republics,  has  also  a  greater  area  than  the  United  States 
without  Alaska,  and  is  more  than  three-fourths  the  size 
of  all  Europe.  It  cannot  therefore  be  considered  as  a  whole 
so  easily  as  the  other  Republics.  It  is  essential  to  differen- 
tiate between  the  various  regions  and  States ;  for  the  dis- 
similarity is  not  confined  to  climate  and  productions ;  or  to 
the  character  of  the  people,  by  reason  of  some  being  indig- 
enous and  others  of  European  descent.  It  arises  in  part 
from  the  long  coast  line  and  the  difficulty  of  land  com- 
munication; in  part  from  the  fact  that  in  some  districts 
the  population  is  almost  entirely  of  European  descent  while 
in  others  there  is  a  large  percentage  of  negro  blood ;  as  well 
as  from  differences  in  physical  and  climatic  conditions. 
Thus  the  Capital  is  not  so  markedly  the  centre  of  the 
Republic  as  in  Argentina,  and  the  States  are  more  loosely 
bound  together  than  in  the  other  Republics.  The  States 
and  the  character  of  the  people  may  be  said  to  differ  as 
much  among  themselves  as  the  countries  of  the  West  Coast 
from  each  other,  a  point  of  importance  to  notice  in  com- 
mercial relations. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  BOUNDARY 

Area.  Brazil  covers  a  surface  of  3,112,453  square  miles. 
Its  length,  2750  miles,  is  about  that  of  Chile;  its  extreme 
width,  2560  miles,  is  ten  times  at  great.  The  coast-line 

372 


BRAZIL  373 

is  much  longer,  4140  miles.  A  considerable  portion  of  this 
immense  area  is  still  but  superficially  explored. 

Population.  According  to  the  cabled  report  of  the  census 
of  1920,  Brazil  has  30,553,509  inhabitants.  Its  population, 
therefore,  exceeds  that  of  any  other  South  American 
Republic  even  more  largely  than  its  area. 

Boundary.  The  boundary  of  the  country,  though 
familiar  from  that  of  the  others,  may  be  rehearsed.  On 
the  north  we  find  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  the  three 
Guianas  with  the  Atlantic  beyond;  on  the  east  and  south- 
east the  Atlantic  only,  on  the  south  Uruguay,  a  speck  of 
Argentina,  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  a  bit  of  Peru;  on  the  west 
a  small  corner  of  Argentina,  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  and  Peru. 
The  only  countries  of  the  continent  not  touching  its  border 
are  Ecuador  and  Chile.  However,  a  few  writers  mention 
Ecuador  on  the  west,  as  the  southeast  boundary  line  of  that 
country  is  still  undetermined. 

HISTORY 

The  first  of  the  South  American  countries  to  be  dis- 
covered after  Colombia  and  Venezuela,  it  was  to  the  region 
of  Brazil  that  the  name  America  was  first  applied.  It  is 
therefore  especially  unbecoming  for  us  to  appropriate  to 
ourselves  in  any  exclusive  sense  the  title  of  Americans; 
though  having  no  other  name,  with  apologies  to  the  others, 
it  may  be  pardonable  for  us  to  employ  it  when  necessary. 

In  the  year  1500  the  first  landing  on  this  part  of  the 
continent  was  made  by  Pedro  Alvares  Cabral,  then  on  his 
way  from  Portugal  to  the  West  Indies.  In  commemoration 
of  that  event,  May  3rd  is  a  Brazilian  national  holiday  and 
the  date  of  the  assembling  of  Congress.  As  soon  as  the 
news  was  received  in  the  home  country,  an  expedition  was 
sent  out  under  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  explored  the  coast 
from  its  eastern  extremity  almost  to  La  Plata,  nearly  2000 
miles.  Fifteen  Captaincies,  each  150  miles  along  the  coast, 


374  THE  EAST  COAST 

were  later  allotted  and  settlements  were  begun.  The  earli- 
est of  these  which  rose  to  importance  were  Sao  Vicente  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Santos,  and  Pernambuco ;  a  little  later, 
Bahia  and  Rio  de  Janeiro.  These  were  the  first  agricultural 
colonies  to  be  founded  in  South  America,  gold  and  silver 
being  the  attraction  elsewhere.  The  French  also  had  an 
eye  to  this  country,  making  a  settlement  at  Rio  de  Janeiro ; 
the  Dutch  as  well,  who  about  a  century  later  captured  Bahia 
and  Pernambuco;  but  both  were  ultimately  expelled,  the 
whole  country  remaining  in  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese. 
Conflicts  with  the  Indians  took  place,  at  first  with  some  who 
were  unfriendly,  and  afterwards  through  attacks  made  by 
the  invaders  upon  those  Indians  who  had  been  christianized 
by  the  Jesuits.  Their  settlements  were  destroyed,  300,000 
are  said  to  have  been  slaughtered,  and  the  rest  were  driven 
by  the  Paulistas  from  the  region  of  the  upper  Parana. 

As  Philip  II  of  Spain  in  1581  became  ruler  of  Portugal, 
during  the  60  years  following,  the  expansion  of  Brazil  to 
the  west  in  territory  which  had  been  assigned  to  Spain 
was  permitted,  and  such  possession  remained  permanent. 
At  other  times  conflicts  occurred  with  the  Spaniards  at  the 
south,  but  in  1777  peace  was  made  with  the  boundaries  as 
at  present. 

In  1807,  Prince  Joao,  fleeing  from  Napoleon,  came  with 
his  court  to  Brazil.  He  soon  opened  the  five  chief  ports  to 
commerce,  he  encouraged  science,  education,  literature,  art, 
and  the  immigration  of  foreigners,  thus  inaugurating  a 
development  of  permanent  value.  On  his  return  to  Europe 
in  1821,  the  Prince,  in  view  of  the  revolts  of  the  Spanish 
colonies,  hinted  to  his  son  whom  he  left  in  charge  the 
advisability  of  himself  assuming  the  crown,  if  a  disposition 
towards  independence  became  manifest.  Accordingly  in 
1822,  the  son  was  crowned  Emperor  of  Brazil;  but  having 
alienated  his  supporters,  in  1831  he  abdicated  in  favor  of 
his  infant  son,  Pedro.  In  1889,  the  old  Emperor,  Dom 
Pedro  II,  who  for  many  years  had  ruled  wisely  and  well, 


BRAZIL 


375 


was  expelled  on  24  hours'  notice;  after  a  brief  interim  a 
Republic  was  established  in  1891.  Extravagance,  insur- 
rections, and  financial  distress  followed,  but  since  1900  the 
country  has  made  rapid  advancement  in  wealth  and  in 
varied  lines  of  development. 

GOVERNMENT 

The  government  is  a  federalized  republic  with  the 
usual  branches,  the  States  more  loosely  bound  together 
than  with  us,  or  than  in  any  other  South  American  Republic. 
They  may  even  fix  export  taxes,  and  levy  stamp  duties. 
The  President,  with  a  Vice  President,  is  elected  for  four 


STATES 

AREA, 
in  square 
miles 

POPULA- 
TION 

CAPITALS 

POPULA- 
TION 

ALTI- 
TUDE, 
in  feet 

Amazonas  

64.5.Q4.O 

4.15.OOO 

Manaos 

60  ooo 

in 

Para  

1QQ.OOO 

002.  100 

Belern 

250  ooo 

21 

Mararihao  

150.810 

851.000 

Maranhao.  .  . 

40  ooo 

iq8 

Piauhy  

89,850 

54.8  25O 

Therezina 

•jc  OOO 

Ceara  

62,160 

1  ,436,300 

Fortaleza 

65  ooo 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte 

15,925 

552.OOO 

Natal  

20,000 

25 

Parahy  ba  

22.54.8 

785.100 

Parahyba  . 

20  ooo 

Pernambuco  

18.570 

I.Q75.44.O 

Recife.  .  .    . 

200,000 

Alagfias  

IO,4OO 

990  ooo 

Macei6 

40  ooo 

Sergipe  

8.Q8-; 

575  OOO 

Aracaju. 

30  ooo 

Bahia  

2O6.00O 

1.171.OOO 

Sao  Salvador 

300  ooo 

14.7 

Espirito  Santo  

16,860 

4.7O.2OO 

Victoria.  .  . 

20,000 

Rio  de  Janeiro  

16.4.08 

I,5O2,OOO 

Nictheroy  .... 

30,000 

Sao  Paulo  

IOIf89O 

4  823  ooo 

Sao  Paulo 

510  ooo 

25IO 

Parana  

7^.4.65 

674.  1OO 

Curityba      .  . 

50  ooo 

2  980 

Santa  Catharina  
Rio  Grande  do  Sul  .  . 
Minas  Geraes  

43,168 
92,350 

227.218 

633,000 
2,138,800 
5,789,000 

Florianopolis  .  . 
Porto  Alegre.  . 
Bello  Horizonte 

30,000 
125,000 

15.  OOO 

3,  08  1 

Govaz.  . 

284,000 

520.  OOO 

Govaz 

18,000 

1.577 

Matto  Grosso  

554..4.OO 

274..  IOO 

Cuyaba  

12.000 

051 

Territory  of  Acre  .  .  . 
Federal  District  

67,712 
450 

104,000 
I,I5O,O8O 

Rio  de  Janeiro  . 

1,150,080 

376  THE  EAST  COAST 

years  and  is  ineligible  for  a  succeeding  term.  He  has  a 
Cabinet  of  seven  Ministers.  Congress  is  composed  of  a 
Senate  with  63  members  and  a  Chamber  of  212  Deputies. 
There  are  20  States,  a  Federal  District,  and  the  Territory 
of  Acre.  The  last  is  composed  of  three  Prefectures,  with 
capital  cities  where  government  is  administered  by  Gov- 
ernment appointees.  The  States  have  their  own  administra- 
tive bodies,  some  with  one  house  of  legislation,  some  with 
two;  and  with  a  Governor  or  President  as  chief  executive, 
a  slight  confusion  possibly  arising  at  times  where  the  latter 
term  is  employed^  All  male  citizens  over  21  may  vote 
except  illiterates,  soldiers,  beggars,  and  members  of 
monastic  orders  subject  to  vows  of  obedience,  a  wise  pre- 
scription. The  list  of  States  precedes,  with  the  usual  figures, 
as  accurate  as  obtainable,  the  areas  from  the  latest  Govern- 
ment survey.  The  list  begins  at  the  northwest,  goes  down 
the  coast,  and  follows  with  the  interior. 

POPULATION 

The  population,  by  the  recent  census  30,553,509,  is  of  a 
more  varied  character  than  that  of  Uruguay  and  Argentina 
at  the  south.  Some  figures  given  are  52  per  cent  white,  26 
mixed,  13  Indian,  and  9  per  cent  negro.  The  original 
settlers  were  Portuguese,  and  at  first  immigration  was  from 
the  mother  country.  In  the  early  days  many  negroes  were 
imported  from  Africa  as  slaves,  yet  there  was  little  color 
prejudice  so  that  the  number  of  mulattoes  and  lighter  as 
well  as  of  negroes  in  some  sections  is  very  large. 

During  the  last  hundred  years  over  3,000,000  immigrants 
have  arrived,  of  whom  the  Italians  formed  the  larger  pro- 
portion ;  next  in  number  were  the  Portuguese,  half  as  many 
Spaniards;  those  of  other  nationalities  included  100,000 
Germans,  and  a  small  colony  from  our  Southern  States,  who 
left  in  disgust  in  1867.  The  negroes,  freed  in  1888  and 
endowed  with  suffrage,  were  less  qualified  for  it  than  in  the 


BRAZIL  377 

United  States.  While  some  have  made  good  advancement 
others  have  relapsed  into  a  worse  condition,  being  able  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  to  exist  on  almost  nothing. 
Indolence  is  a  failing  among  many  of  all  complexions,  as 
is  natural  in  tropical  regions;  on  the  other  hand  many 
Brazilians  even  in  the  warmer  sections  are  characterized 
by  great  activity  and  industry.  In  the  large  cities  culture 
and  elegance  are  noticeable  and  aristocracy  of  birth  is 
cherished.  In  some  regions  the  inhabitants  are  less  pre- 
tentious, live  more  simply,  and  practise  the  homely  virtues ; 
the  most  primitive  section  according  to  Oakenfull  is  between 
the  Sao  Francisco  River  and  Maranhao.  Women  in  general 
are  more  secluded  than  in  some  of  the  other  Republics. 
The  Brazilians  have  much  literary  and  artistic  taste  and 
as  a  rule  are  punctilious  in  courtesy,  though  exceptions  may 
be  noted. 

EDUCATION 

Education  is  highly  regarded  in  Brazil.  Primary  and 
secondary  are  free  and  secular,  generally  provided  by  the 
States  and  Municipalities.  The  Federal  Government  admin- 
isters several  Professional  Schools  as  of  Medicine,  Law, 
Engineering,  etc.,  and  many  of  Agriculture  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.  With  some  of  these,  local  schools  are 
affiliated,  as  Schools  of  Law,  of  Applied  Science,  at  Rio  of 
Social  Science,  at  Recife  Engineering,  etc.  The  different 
States  spend  4-21  per  cent  of  their  revenue  on  primary 
education,  averaging  above  ten.  The  Federal  District 
spends  28  per  cent.  There  are  also  private  schools  in  dif- 
ferent cities,  several  English  or  American;  the  American 
Mackenzie  College  at  Sao  Paulo  is  affiliated  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  State  of  New  York. 

PRESS,  RELIGION,  ETC. 

The  Press  is  influential  and  of  high  quality,  the  leading 
papers  of  Rio,  Sao  Paulo,  and  other  cities  comparing  well 


378  THE  EAST  COAST 

with  those  of  cities  of  corresponding  size  in  other  parts  of 
the  world. 

Religion.  In  Brazil  there  is  entire  separation  of  Church 
and  State  and  absolute  religious  freedom.  Civil  marriage 
alone  is  recognized. 

Post  and  Telegraph.     Brazil  has  3700  Post  Offices. 

Telegraph  wires  (over  26,000  miles)  are  in  part  national ; 
other  lines  belong  to  the  railways;  there  are  submarine 
cables,  and  one  up  the  Amazon.  Wireless  stations  have 
been  installed  at  many  points  on  the  coast  and  in  the 
interior,  including  the  Amazon  district,  as  at  Manaos  and 
beyond.  Telephones  are  to  be  found  in  all  cities  of  any 
considerable  size,  about  80  systems. 

Money  is  more  complicated  and  bothersome  than  in 
any  of  the  other  countries,  the  unit  being  of  1000  instead 
of  100  parts,  as  is  usual.  Thus  the  milreis,  written  i$ooo, 
equals  1000  reis  as  the  name  indicates.  The  milreis  of  gold 
is  equal  to  54.6  cents,  but  exchange  varies,  and  the  paper 
in  common  use  varies  from  its  ordinary  value,  33.3  cents, 
to  half  that  or  even  less  in  disturbed  conditions.  A  conto 
of  reis,  a  term  often  used,  is  1000  milreis,  and  is  written  with 
a  colon,  thus:  5  contos,  20  milreis,  and  300  reis  would  be 
written  5 :  2O$3OO. 

The  Metric  System  is  legal  and  compulsory,  but  in  some 
places,  the  old  Portuguese  measures  persist;  these  differ 
from  the  Spanish.  A  vara  in  Peru  is  less  than  a  yard,  but 
in  Brazil  it  is  I. Ill  metre,  or  1.215  yard.  A  libra  is  4.695 
kilos;  an  alquiere  varies  from  24  to  160  litres.  Other 
variety  exists  in  the  same  or  in  different  places. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 
BRAZIL:  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

Brazil  presents  in  physical  characteristics  more  variety 
than  is  generally  supposed.  As  the  great  Amazon  Basin 
is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  immense  Andean  Range,  the 
entire  country  is  thought  of  as  hot.  Since  it  extends  from 
5°  10'  N.  Lat.  to  33°  45'  S.  Lat.  with  the  widest  part  near 
the  equator,  the  greater  portion  of  the  territory  is  evidently 
in  the  torrid  zone,  11°  only  in  the  temperate,  with  more 
than  twice  that  in  the  tropics.  However,  in  this  compara- 
tively low  country,  there  is  happily  a  variation  in  altitude 
sufficient  to  affect  the  climate  and  to  give  rise  to  variety 
in  productions;  to  which  diversity  the  11°  in  the  temperate 
zone  also  contribute.  The  territory  may  be  considered 
as  in  four  general  sections:  the  Amazon  Basin,  the  Plata 
(the  two  almost  connected  over  low  elevations),  the  Coastal 
Belt,  and  a  mass  of  mountains  and  highlands  along  the 
coastal  states,  extending  also  at  a  lower  level  across  to 
Bolivia.  In  addition  there  are  the  Guiana  Highlands  at  the 
north. 

THE  COASTAL  BELT 

The  coastal  section  is  largely  a  low-lying  sandy  tract, 
varied  by  swamp  lands  overgrown  with  palms  or  other 
verdure,  and  slopes  covered  with  dense  tropical  vegetation. 
Without  deep  indentations  in  the  form  of  gulfs  and  bays 
there  is  a  considerable  number  of  good  harbors.  In  the  far 
south  two  large  lakes  have  been  created  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  ocean.  The  coastal  strip  varies  in  width 
from  one  to  100  miles. 

879 


380  THE  EAST  COAST 

THE  GUIANA  HIGHLANDS 

Of  the  mountainous  regions,  the  range  forming  the 
boundary  line  with  Venezuela  and  Guiana  on  the  north 
with  its  offshoots  and  the  country  between  has  attracted 
little  interest  and  been  but  slightly  explored.  From  Mt. 
Roraima,  8500  feet,  at  the  corner  of  Venezuela  and  British 
Guiana,  the  range  lowers  toward  the  East,  the  highest  point 
on  the  French  frontier  being  about  2600  feet.  South  of  this 
are  broken  ranges  and  deep  river  courses  on  the  Brazilian 
plateau,  which  with  an  altitude  of  2000  feet  slopes  south 
and  east.  Excepting  the  part  near  the  coast,  this  section 
called  Brazilian  Guiana  is  semi-arid,  on  account  of  the 
mountains  extracting  the  moisture  from  the  northeast  trade 
winds.  Inhabited  by  a  few  roving  bands  of  Indians  and 
in  the  east  visited  by  white  mining  adventurers,  it  has  been 
deemed  one  of  the  least  attractive  parts  of  the  Republic. 
Recent  exploration,  however,  has  reported  an  extent  of 
valuable  forest  lands  and  immense  areas  of  open  country 
suited  to  cattle  ranges.  A  railway  from  British  Guiana  is 
talked  of  to  render  this  district  accessible  to  the  outside 
world. 

THE  PLATEAU  AND  MOUNTAIN  REGION 

An  important  part  of  Brazil  is  the  plateau  region  (alti- 
tude 1000-3000  feet)  south  of  the  Amazon,  especially  that 
portion  extending  along  the  coastal  states.,  The  greater 
part  of  the  central  section  was  once  covered  with  a  thick 
sandstone  sheet,  now  deeply  eroded  by  numerous  rivers 
which  have  left  high  flat  ridges  between  the  lower  basins. 
The  true  mountain  systems  which  rise  from  the  plateau 
are  parallel  ranges  following  the  coast,  and  the  Central  or 
Goyana  system.  An  almost  continuous  range,  the  Serra  do 
Mar,  stretches  from  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  to  Cape  Frio,  just 
east  of  Rio  de  Janeiro ;  beyond  this,  farther  from  the  coast, 


BRAZIL  381 

broken  sections  extend  well  towards  Cape  St.  Roque  in 
Rio  Grande  do  Norte.  The  highest  point  in  the  Serra  do 
Mar  or  Coast  Range  is  7223  feet  in  the  Organ  Mountains 
near  Rio,  as  the  capital  city  is  often  called  for  short  and 
may  be  so  understood  when  here  used. 

A  second  parallel  range  runs  from  Eastern  Sao  Paulo 
northeast  and  north  to  the  point  where  the  Sao  Francisco 
River  turns  east  in  Bahia;  Itatiaia,  9823  feet,  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro  State,  is  its  culminating  point  in  Brazil.  West  of 
the  Sao  Francisco  River  is  the  Central  or  Goyaz  Range, 
also  in  two  branches,  running  from  the  southern  part  of 
Goyaz  northeast,  one  branch  across  western  Minas  Geraes, 
the  other  in  Goyaz  with  highlands  extending  far  north 
separating  the  Tocantins  Basin  from  the  Sao  Francisco, 
and  in  the  south  separating  it  from  the  Parana.  The  highest 
point  is  near  the  city  of  Goyaz,  Mt.  Pyraneus,  7750  feet. 
How  the  great  table-land  has  been  broken  down  by  rivers 
is  shown  by  the  Tocantins-Araguaya  Basin  excavated 
northward  for  700  miles.  From  100  to  500  miles  wide,  it 
is  from  10  to  1500  feet  deep. 

The  eastern  margin  of  the  plateau  is  near  the  Atlantic 
where  it  breaks  off  suddenly  with  an  average  height  of 
2600-3200  feet.  This  plateau  is  the  best  part  of  the  country, 
the  Atlantic  slope  heavily  wooded,  the  more  gradual  west 
slope  with  many  grass  covered  plains.  A  fertile  soil,  rich 
forests,  and  regular  rainfall  make  this  a  favored  region. 
Farther  north  than  Minas  Geraes,  the  section  has  less  rain, 
is  thinly  wooded  in  places,  with  large  areas  suited  to  graz- 
ing but  subject  to  drought.  The  plateau  extends  across 
Brazil  north  of  Paraguay  abruptly  breaking  down  from  a 
height  of  2600-3000  feet  towards  the  Parana  and  Paraguay 
Basins.  It  has  a  gradual  slope  towards  the  Amazon,  the 
parts  excavated  by  the  rivers  having  lowland  character- 
istics. 


382  THE  EAST  COAST 

THE  AMAZON  BASIN 

The  section  of  the  Amazon  Basin  is  indeed  immense. 
The  whole  drainage  area  with  that  of  the  Tocantins,  gen- 
erally included  though  not  strictly  a  component  part, 
spreads  over  2,700,000  square  miles,  much  of  it  as  we  have 
already  seen  outside  of  Brazil,  and  occupying  two-fifths  of 
South  America.  This  area  is  greater  than  the  basins  of  the 
Mississippi,  Missouri,  Danube,  and  Nile,  all  combined.  The 
course  of  one  tributary  to  the  sea  is  3200  miles.  Of  the 
55  largest  rivers  in  the  world,  it  is  said  that  33  are  mainly 
if  not  wholly  in  Brazil.  Twenty-seven  thousand  miles  of 
navigable  rivers  are  found  in  the  country,  the  greater  part 
connected  with  the  Amazon,  which  is  itself  navigable  for 
ocean  steamers  to  Iquitos,  Peru,  a  distance  of  2300  miles, 
and  486  miles  farther  for  vessels  of  14  feet  draft.  The  true 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  is  west  and  north  of  the  Marajos 
Island  which  is  greater  in  area  than  Holland  or  Belgium, 
while  the  Para  River  at  the  south  and  east  is  the  mouth  of 
the  Tocantins.  This,  however,  is  the  usual  entrance  for 
Amazon  steamers  even  when  they  do  not  wish  to  call  at 
Para,  for  this  river  is  connected  by  natural  channels  among 
islands  with  the  greater  stream,  and  the  northern  entrance 
has  too  strong  a  current  to  be  desirable  for  navigation.  As 
a  matter  of  convenience  the  Tocantins  is  generally  included 
with  the  Amazon  in  descriptions.  The  depth  of  the  estuary 
is  90-900  feet,  averaging  150. 

The  Tocantins  River  is  a  great  artery  of  Brazil  flowing 
from  south  to  north  a  distance  of  1600  miles,  with  a  west 
affluent,  the  Araguaya,  almost  its  equal  in  size  and  1000 
miles  long  above  the  union.  Both  rivers  receive  many  tribu- 
taries. The  flat  broad  valleys  are  overlooked  by  steep 
bluffs.  The  cataracts  and  rapids  which  occur  on  nearly 
all  of  the  rivers  as  they  come  down  from  the  plateau  greatly 
interfere  with  navigation,  but  in  their  lower  courses  many 
are  navigable  for  hundreds  of  miles,  the  Tocantins  for  130. 


BRAZIL  383 

The  Xingu,  the  next  river,  with  a  length  of  1260  miles 
is  the  first  true  tributary  of  the  Amazon  on  the  south.  This 
also  flows  nearly  north  with  many  rapids  and  at  last  a 
fall,  Itamaraca,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  105  miles  from 
its  mouth.  Near  this  the  river  expands  into  a  great  lake 
which  communicates  with  the  Amazon  by  many  natural 
channels* 

The  Tapajos,  1158  miles  long,  entering  the  Amazon 
about  500  miles  above  Para,  rises  near  Diamantino  on  the 
plateau,  and  flows  through  a  long,  hot,  unhealthful  valley. 
One  hundred  and  eighty-eight  miles  are  navigable,  the  lower 
100  of  these  being  4-9  miles  wide  and  throughout  much  of 
its  course  very  deep.  Along  the  lower  river  valley  are  bluffs 
300-400  feet  high. 

The  Madeira,  entering  870  miles  above  Para,  almost 
rivals  the  Amazon  in  volume.  In  the  rainy  season,  during 
which  it  rises  50  feet,  the  largest  ocean  steamers  may  ascend 
665  miles  to  the  falls  of  Santo  Antonio  and  the  Madeira- 
Mamore  Railway;  from  June  to  December  it  is  navigable 
for  vessels  of  5-6  foot  draft  only.  Tributary  to  the  Madeira 
on  the  east  is  the  river  formerly  called  the  Duvida,  first 
completely  traversed  by  Colonel  Roosevelt  and  his  party 
and  now  named  in  his  honor  Rio  Roosevelt.  The  Madeira 
which  has  90  tributaries  and  a  basin  of  over  600,000  square 
miles  is  formed  a  little  higher  up  by  the  junction  of  the  Beni 
and  Mamore,  both  of  which  streams  rise  close  to  the  head 
waters  of  the  Paraguay.  From  Santo  Antonio  south,  the 
Madeira-Mamore  is  obstructed  for  263  miles  by  a  series  of 
rapids  and  cataracts,  the  Madeira  Falls,  where  the  Beni 
comes  in,  presenting  a  vast  display  of  whirlpool  and  boiling 
torrents.  Above  Santo  Antonio  the  drainage  is  received  of 
the  southwest  slope  of  the  State  of  Matto  Grosso,  the  north 
slope  of  the  Chiquitos  Sierras,  and  the  northeast  slope  of  the 
Andes  from  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  in  Bolivia  to  Cuzco  in 
Peru.  The  most  important  of  the  affluents  are  the  Guapore, 
Baures,  Itonamas,  Mamore,  Beni,  and  Madre<le  Dios.  The 


384  THE  EAST  COAST 

almost  level  Mojos  and  Beni  plains  are  said  to  rival  if  not 
to  exceed  in  fertility  the  Nile  Valley;  they  are  the  most 
healthful  and  most  inviting  grazing  and  agricultural  regions 
in  the  Amazon  Basin,  which  has  an  area  about  equal  to  that 
of  France  and  Spain.  However,  35,000  square  miles  are 
flooded  2-3  feet,  three  or  four  months  every  year. 

The  Purvis,  over  2000  miles  in  length,  is  a  very  sluggish 
stream  parallel  to  the  Madeira,  in  the  great  depression 
between  the  Brazilian  plateau  and  the  Andes.  A  peculiar 
feature  is  five  parallel  canals  coming  into  it  from  the 
Amazon  northwest  at  almost  regular  intervals,  making  five 
low  islands;  and  nearer  to  the  great  river  are  three  more. 
The  Purus  is  navigable  for  light  steamers  1648  miles  five 
months  in  the  year;  for  800  miles  its  depth  is  not  less  than 
45  feet.  The  lands  are  subject  to  inundation,  the  river  at 
times  rising  50  feet. 

The  Jurua  is  a  similar  river,  navigable  for  1133  miles. 

The  Javary,  the  boundary  line  between  Brazil  and  Peru, 
is  navigable  for  craft  260  miles.  The  region  is  occupied  by 
savages. 

The  Trombetes.  On  the  north  side  of  the  Amazon  there 
are  fewer  important  rivers,  the  Trombetes,  the  first  from  the 
east,  which  is  navigable  135  miles,  comes  from  the  Guiana 
Highlands. 

The  Negro,  900  miles  from  Para,  1500  miles  long,  is 
navigable  for  450  miles  forming  midway  a  succession  of 
lagoons,  and  overflowing  its  banks,  often  for  a  width  of  20 
miles.  The  rivers  farther  west  have  been  sufficiently  de- 
scribed. 

The  average  depth  of  the  Amazon  is  50  feet,  the  current 
is  three  miles  an  hour.  Beginning  to  rise  in  November  the 
river  is  fullest  in  June,  then  falling  to  November.  The 
Madeira,  which  rises  and  falls  two  months  earlier,  is  in 
places  4-6  miles  wide.  The  width  of  the  Amazon  is  20-60 
miles,  while  in  periods  of  inundation  the  forest  is  partly 
submerged  for  a  width  of  400  miles. 


BRAZIL  385 

THE  PLATA  BASIN 

A  much  smaller  portion  of  Brazil  lies  in  the  basin  of  La 
Plata ;  this,  at  least  for  the  moment,  is  the  best  and  richest 
part  of  the  entire  country,  containing  the  greatest  popula- 
tion outside  of  the  coastal  fringe. 

The  Uruguay.  At  the  south  the  several  rivers  forming 
the  Uruguay,  which  rise  in  the  Serra  do  Mar,  drain  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  and  part  of  Santa  Catharina,  while  from  there 
up  to  the  north  end  of  Sao  Paulo  and  into  Goyaz  only  a  nar- 
row coast  region  is  outside  the  Parana  Basin. 

The  Parana.  The  most  remote  source  of  the  Parana, 
that  of  the  branch  Paranahyba,  is  in  the  Serra  Pyreneos  in 
Goyaz,  while  the  Rio  Grande  branch  rises  in  the  Serra  da 
Mantiqueira  near  the  peak  Itatiaia,  so  to  say,  in  sight  of  Rio. 
Many  affluents  are  received  from  the  States  of  Sao  Paulo 
and  Parana,  these  generally  flowing  northwest  or  west ;  the 
Parana  itself  flows  southwest  forming  the  western  boundary 
of  those  States.  A  branch,  the  Tiete,  in  Sao  Paulo,  700 
miles  long,  is  broken  by  54  rapids  and  two  falls.  The 
Paranapanema  in  Parana,  600  miles  long,  is  navigable  for 
30  miles.  The  Iguassu,  rising  in  the  Serra  do  Mar  in  Santa 
Catharina  and  flowing  west  is  hardly  navigable  for  canoes. 

Twenty-eight  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Tiete  the 
course  of  the  Parana  is  interrupted  by  the  Falls  of  Urubu- 
punga.  From  here  to  the  Guaira  or  Sete  Quedas  Falls,  400 
miles,  there  is  unobstructed  navigation.  At  this  point  the 
river  forms  a  lake  4jE^  miles  long  and  2.^/2  wide  before  cut- 
ting through  the  Serra  de  Maracaju.  Then  after  rushing 
through  a  deep  and  narrow  gorge  for  two  miles,  it  plunges 
down  a  long  canon  hardly  200  feet  wide  in  a  series  of  rapids 
or  falls  called  the  Sete  Quedas,  Seven  Falls.  It  is  reported 
as  able  to  supply  over  a  million  horse  power,  probably  the 
most  of  any  cataract  in  the  world.  Again  the  river  is  navi- 
gable from  a  little  below  the  falls,  and  with  regular  service 
it  forms  an  outlet  for  the  State  of  Parana  to  the  ocean. 


386  THE  EAST  COAST 

The  Paraguay.  The  River  Paraguay  rises  near  Dia- 
mantino  in  Matto  Grosso  receiving  a  number  of  tributaries 
from  that  State,  one  of  which,  the  Cuyaba,  called  the  Sao 
Lourenc.o  lower  down,  has  its  source  close  to  that  of  the 
Tapajos  branch  of  the  Amazon. 

COAST  RIVERS  AND  LAKES 

Other  rivers  flow  directly  into  the  Atlantic,  several  of 
some  importance.  North  of  the  Amazon  a  few  small  rivers 
are  called  auriferous,  the  Araguary  of  considerable  length. 
South  of  the  Amazon  Delta,  some  rivers  flow  north  and 
northeast  among  the  mountain  ridges,  others  directly  to  the 
ocean.  Of  the  former  the  most  important  are  the  Parna- 
hyba,  900  miles  long,  navigable  in  sections,  and  farther  south 
the  Sao  Francisco,  the  largest  river  of  the  coastal  region, 
navigable  192  miles  from  the  coast  to  the  fine  Paulo  Affonso 
Falls,  and  above  these  for  a  much  greater  distance.  The 
Jequitinhonha,  500  miles  long,  has  84  miles  navigable.  The 
most  important  river  south  of  the  Sao  Francisco  is  the  Para- 
hyba  do  Sul,  658  miles  long,  rising  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo 
and  flowing  across  Rio.  It  is  navigable  from  its  mouth  a 
distance  of  57  miles  and  90  in  its  upper  course. 

The  Ribeira  de  Iguape.  The  only  coast  river  of  eco- 
nomic importance  south  of  Cape  Frio  is  the  Ribeira  de 
Iguape  which  rises  on  the  table-land  of  Parana  and  after 
receiving  several  affluents  breaks  through  the  mountains 
near  the  boundary  of  Sao  Paulo.  Besides  a  navigable  chan- 
nel of  118  miles  it  communicates  with  an  inland  waterway 
called  the  Iguape  or  Mar  Pequeno,  extending  many  miles 
along  the  coast.  In  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  where  the  coastal 
plain  extends  half  j  across  the  State,  several  rivers  partly 
navigable  flow  into  the  important  Lagoa  dos  Patos,  with 
which  is  connected  by  a  navigable  channel,  61  miles  long, 
the  Lagoa  Mirim. 

Lakes.    The  Lakes  of  Brazil  are  few  in  comparison  with 


BRAZIL  387 

the  rivers.  Those  in  the  Amazon  Basin  are  reservoirs  from 
the  overflow  of  the  rivers  and  rise  and  fall  with  these.  The 
coastal  section  has  lagoons  and  inland  channels  formed  by 
uplifted  beaches;  they  are  usually  shallow  and  some,  as  in 
Bahia,  are  associated  with  swamps;  but  on  the  Alagoas 
coast  the  lakes  are  long,  narrow,  and  deep.  The  largest 
coastal  lakes  are  the  two  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  already 
mentioned,  separated  by  broad  sand  beaches  from  the  ocean, 
with  which  they  communicate  by  a  channel  42  miles  long 
at  the  south  end  of  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos.  This  lake  is  140 
miles  long  and  30  wide ;  the  Mirim  is  78  miles  long  and  at 
the  most  25  wide.  Both  are  navigable,  though  shallow  and 
with  many  sand  bars. 

CLIMATE 

This  great  country  of  Brazil  presents  considerable  diver- 
sity of  climate,  as  already  observed.  The  forest  covered 
Amazon  Basin  is  hot,  with  slight  variation  throughout  the 
year,  and  with  heavy  rainfalls;  but  while  the  average  tem- 
perature is  over  80°,  ranging  from  65°  to  95°,  some  loca- 
tions are  decidedly  preferable  to  others.  The  regular  rainy 
season  is  from  November  to  March,  a  second  of  less  degree 
from  August  to  October;  also  the  rainy  season  is  said  to 
last  nine  months.  On  the  upper  Amazon  there  is  a  short 
dry  season  in  January  and  February.  There  is  a  flood  time 
November,  December,  and  higher  water  from  March  to 
June.  The  average  rainfall  is  about  78  inches,  the  rise  of 
the  river  45  feet.  There  are  east  winds,  warm  and  moisture 
laden,  the  deflected  trades,  and  colder  winds  from  the  west 
and  southwest. 

The  coast  region  as  far  south  as  Santos  is  generally 
warm  and  humid  (except  for  a  stretch  at  the  northeast), 
with  a  wet  and  dry  season,  though  it  rains  also  in  the  latter, 
except  on  the  arid  northeast  coast.  A  variation  occurs  in 
Pernambuco  where  it  rains  from  March  to  August,  the  dry 


388  THE  EAST  COAST 

and  cooler  season  in  Rio.  Here  on  the  edge  of  the  tropics 
the  annual  temperature  is  5°  lower  than  on  the  Amazon. 
At  Santos  rainfall  is  heavy  and  the  place  is  hot,  but  farther 
south  it  is  cooler  with  a  wider  range  of  temperature  and  a 
more  even  distribution  of  rain.  In  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  the 
mercury  ranges  from  20°  to  80°.  Cold  southwest  storms 
from  the  Argentine  pampa,  occasionally  as  far  as  Rio,  create 
discomfort  for  two  or  three  days  at  a  time.  The  highest 
temperature  in  Rio  is  98.7°. 

The  Brazilian  plateau  is  very  different.  As  a  rule  the 
days  are  hotter  and  the  nights  cooler,  the  air  drier,  than  on 
the  coast  at  the  same  latitude.  With  mean  temperature  68° 
there  is  occasional  frost.  Brazilian  Guiana  is  hot  and  arid, 
though  with  more  rain  at  the  east  and  west  than  in  the 
centre.  South  of  the  Amazon  from  Piauhy  to  southern 
Bahia  is  another  semi-arid  section  with  a  rainless  season 
from  June  to  December,  when  streams  are  dry  and  fields 
are  burned  bare.  With  heavy  rains  from  January  to  May, 
the  country  is  covered  with  verdure ;  when  these  fail,  some- 
times for  successive  years,  the  droughts  are  destructive  to 
agriculture  and  cattle.  The  plateaus  of  Minas,  Sao  Paulo, 
and  Rio  have  a  climate  which  is  modified  by  luxuriant  vege- 
tation, south  winds,  and  their  altitude;  though  Minas 
Geraes,  having  forests  only  along  the  rivers  and  at  the 
south,  is  hotter  by  day,  but  with  always  cool  nights.  The 
open  lands  of  Sao  Paulo  also  have  higher  daily  tempera- 
ture; the  annual  mean  is  68°-77°.  In  south  Minas  and  Sao 
Paulo  frosts  occasionally  occur.  In  the  State  of  Rio  there 
is  a  delightful  climate  in  the  high  valleys  of  the  Serra  do 
Mar,  temperature  45°-9O°.  The  table-lands  farther  south, 
Parana,  Santa  Catharina,  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  enjoy  a 
temperate  climate  with  abundant  rain,  occasional  frost,  but 
no  snow.  The  northern  valleys  of  the  Parana  River  are  sub- 
tropical, the  mean  annual  temperature  of  Goyaz  City 
being  77°. 

The   country   over  a  large  extent  may  be  considered 


BRAZIL  389 

healthful ;  the  yellow  fever  which  once  afflicted  Rio  and  some 
other  cities  has  been  exterminated  by  rigid  sanitary  meas- 
ures, and  the  conditions  of  life  on  the  eastern  plateau  and 
in  the  temperate  south  are  agreeable.  The  Amazon  Valley 
is  of  course  malarial,  though  some  sections  are  far  better 
than  others.  It  would  seem  that  the  lower  parts  which 
are  subject  to  inundation  can  hardly  be  made  suitable  for 
residence  whatever  precautions  are  taken;  but  the  higher 
lands  may  be  to  some  extent  free  of  malarial  poison,  and 
certain  parts  have  a  climate  which  some  Europeans,  even 
Englishmen  enjoy. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 

BRAZIL:  THE  CAPITAL,  INDIVIDUAL  STATES, 

CITIES 

THE  CAPITAL 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  capital  of  Brazil,  with  a  population 
of  1,200,000,  the  second  city  in  South  America  and  the  fifth 
in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  is  generally  conceded  to  have 
the  finest  harbor  in  the  world.  It  is  also  the  most  beautiful 
city  in  respect  to  natural  advantages,  while  the  improve- 
ments which  have  recently  been  carried  out  have  made  the 
artificial  structure  of  the  city  in  harmony  with  its  pictur- 
esque surroundings.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century  the 
Government  awoke  to  the  disadvantages  of  the  narrow 
streets,  the  poor  facilities  for  commerce,  and  the  notoriously 
bad  conditions  of  health.  Immense  improvements  were  in- 
augurated and  speedily  executed.  Fine  drainage  canals 
were  installed,  mosquitoes  practically  exterminated,  wide 
avenues  were  cut  through  dense  quarters,  and  port  works 
constructed,  so  that  in  health,  beauty,  and  commercial  con- 
venience, nothing  remains  to  be  desired.  A  new  Central 
Avenue,  now  renamed  Rio  Branco,  is  counted  among  the 
finest  in  the  world;  other  splendid  avenues  are  lined  with 
fine  commercial  structures  or  beautiful  private  residences, 
perhaps  with  royal  palms;  along  the  shores  are  magnificent 
boulevards  unrivaled  in  beauty,  often  thronged  with  luxuri- 
ous automobiles,  all  amid  surroundings  of  ideal  loveliness 
of  sea-shore  and  of  mountain.  Hotel  accommodations, 
hitherto  only  fair,  and  inadequate,  are  improving  with  the 
erection  of  needed  new  structures,  as  increasing  travel  for 

390 


A   T   L  A  A    T   /    C 

0   C    E  A    .V 


EASTERN   BRAZIL 


BRAZIL  391 

business  and  pleasure  demanded.  Living  expenses  are 
called  high  in  all  parts  of  Brazil,  but  on  the  whole  Rio 
has  seemed  no  dearer  than  New  York.  The  city  may  boast 
of  a  splendid  opera  house,  said  to  have  cost  $5,000,000,  of 
the  largest  library  in  South  America,  and  the  finest  art  gal- 
lery, a  wonderful  botanical  garden,  museums,  delightful  sea 
and  mountain  resorts,  etc.,  etc. 

STATES  AND  CITIES 

As  the  country  of  Brazil  is  so  large  and  of  such  diversity 
in  its  various  sections  and  even  in  single  States,  with  many 
independent  systems  of  railways  connected  with  its  numer- 
ous harbors,  it  may  be  desirable  to  speak  of  its  ports  and 
to  some  extent  of  its  railways  in  connection  with  a  review 
of  the  different  States.  In  this  we  may  begin  with  the 
Coastal  States,  coming  up  from  the  south,  and  conclude 
with  those  of  the  interior. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  eleventh  in  area  among  the  States 
of  Brazil,  and  equal  in  size  to  Indiana  and  Illinois  together, 
borders  on  Uruguay  at  the  south.  The  Uruguay  River 
separates  it  from  Argentina  on  the  west  and  most  of  the 
way  from  the  State  of  Santa  Catharina  on  the  north.  Its 
population  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  State  of  South 
Carolina,  which  is  one-third  of  its  size.  It  is  called  a  pas- 
toral State  as  its  chief  source  of  wealth  at  present  is  cattle ; 
45  of  the  70  million  acres  are  cattle  ranges,  6%  million, 
farms,  and  13^  forests.  The  nearly  9,000,000  head  of  cattle 
are  called  the  best  in  Brazil.  Blooded  stock  is  being  intro- 
duced and  packing  houses  are  taking  the  place  of  saladeros  for 
charque  or  dried  meat,  which  formerly  were  the  destination 
of  most  of  the  cattle.  High  class  poultry  is  extensively  and 
profitably  raised,  $4,500,000  being  invested  in  the  industry. 

With  a  temperate  climate  and  well  watered,  the  country 
is  by  no  means  confined  to  stock  raising,  for  its  agricultural 
products  are  more  diverse  than  those  of  any  other  state. 


392     ,  THE  EAST  COAST 

Not  only  cereals  like  wheat  and  oats,  but  cotton,  rice,  sugar 
cane,  tobacco,  manioc,  alfalfa,  etc.,  even  tea  are  successfully 
raised,  as  well  as  temperate  zone  fruits  and  vegetables.  It 
has  important  coal  mines,  with  some  of  copper,  gold,  and 
wolfram  also  being  operated,  and  a  wide  distribution  of 
these  and  other  minerals.  With  13,000  industrial  estab- 
lishments its  important  factories  include  nine  textile  mills. 

The  capital,  Porto  Alegre,  is  the  chief  manufacturing 
centre,  and  the  State  is  third  in  such  industries.  The  capital 
is  the  largest  city  in  southern  Brazil,  with  a  cosmopolitan 
population  one  fourth  of  German  descent.  An  important 
commercial  and  industrial  centre,  it  has  fine  public  build- 
ings, colleges,  theatres,  clubs,  good  shops,  parks,  and  hotels. 
The  population  is  nearly  all  white  with  a  large  percentage 
of  Italians  as  well  as  of  Germans. 

Rio  Grande  is  the  chief  port,  looo  miles  south  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  and  180  by  sea  north  of  Montevideo.  The  city  lies 
just  inside  the  entrance  of  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos  at  its  south 
end.  Unfortunately,  the  entrance  has  been  obstructed  by  a 
sand  bar  with  a  varying  depth  of  water  above.  Vessels 
drawing  more  than  n  feet  could  not  pass;  uncertainty,  often 
a  few  days'  waiting  was  the  fate  of  others.  An  attempt  to 
dredge  a  passage  was  unsuccessful,  but  with  building  of 
jetties  improvement  is  manifest.  Port  works  in  the  city, 
including  a  mile  of  quays,  have  been  established,  and  a  rapid 
development  of  the  region  is  expected  to  follow.  The  city, 
population  40,000,  has  an  active  commerce  by  rail  and  water. 
By  rail  it  is  connected  at  Cacequy  with  the  through  line  from 
Sao  Paulo  to  Montevideo,  and  beyond  this  line  at  Urugua- 
yana  (population  20,000),  on  the  Uruguay  River,  with  the 
Argentine  railways  on  the  other  side.  There  is  regular 
steam  navigation  to  the  port  of  Pelotas,  three  hours,  popu- 
lation 32,000,  noted  for  its  dried  meat  products,  and  to  Porto 
Alegre  at  the  north  end  of  the  lagoon,  150  miles  and  12 
hours  distant. 

Santa  Catharina,  north  of  Rio  Grande,  less  than  one 


BRAZIL  393 

third  of  its  size,  has  rather  similar  characteristics.  Border- 
ing on  the  Atlantic,  it  has  Argentina  on  the  west;  on  the 
north  is  the  State  of  Parana,  from  which  it  is  separated 
for  half  the  distance  by  the  Iguassu  River.  The  State  is 
notable  for  wheat  growing  and  other  grains,  for  cattle  and 
dairy  products,  for  its  exports  of  fruits,  for  its  coal  mines, 
and  for  the  timber  from  its  forests,  especially  the  Parana 
pines.  It  ranks  second  in  Brazil  as  a  producer  of  yerba  mate, 
in  Portuguese  herva  matte,  14,000,000  pounds  being  its  annual 
output.  Its  manufacturing  establishments  (174)  are  of  small 
size. 

The  capital  and  chief  port  is  Florianopolis  on  an  island 
of  that  name.  Improvements  in  the  way  of  good  port  works 
are  in  hand,  and  though  without  rail  connection  a  tonnage 
of  about  300,000  has  entered  and  cleared  in  a  year.  The 
port  of  Sao  Francisco,  a  smaller  town  in  the  State,  is  called 
the  best  port  south  of  Santos.  This  advantage  will  give  the 
city  future  importance.  Already  it  has  rail  connection  by 
way  of  the  town  Rio  Negro  with  Curityba  and  Paranagua, 
and  so  with  Ponta  Grossa  on  the  Sao  Paulo-Uruguay  Rail- 
way which  of  course  crosses  the  State,  a  distance  of  225 
miles.  The  city  is  expected  to  be  the  terminus  of  a  road 
which  will  pass  through  Uniao  da  Victoria  to  the  Iguassu 
Falls  and  across  Paraguay  to  Asuncion. 

Parana,  about  the  size  of  Rio  Grande,  is  between  Santa 
Catharina  and  Sao  Paulo,  having  Argentina  also  on  its 
southwest  corner  beyond  the  Iguassu  River  and  its  great 
Falls.  Along  the  western  border  flows  the  larger  river, 
the  Alto  Parana  (with  the  tremendous  La  Guayra  Falls) 
separating  the  State  from  Paraguay,  and  farther  north  from 
Matto  Grosso.  Besides  these  boundary  rivers  the  Paranapa- 
nema,  affluent  of  the  Parana,  flows  between  this  State  and 
Sao  Paulo,  while  the  Rio  Negro  and  Iguassu  are  between 
it  and  Santa  Catharina.  Many  more  tributaries  of  the 
Parana  are  entirely  within  the  State.  Matte  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry at  present,  100,000,000  pounds  being  annually  exported ; 


394  THE  EAST  COAST 

but  with  the  best  wheat  land  of  Brazil,  its  forests  of  Parana 
pine,  and  other  varieties  of  timber  it  may  have  another  leader 
before  long.  Paranagua,  the  State's  chief  port,  with  a  deep 
anchorage  and  improvements  planned,  is  now  visited  by  650 
vessels  a  year  and  has  a  total  annual  trade  of  $6,000,000.  A 
smaller  port,  Antonina,  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  same  bay. 

The  capital,  Curityba,  has  rail  connection  with  the  two 
ports  and  with  Ponta  Grossa  on  the  line  to  Uruguay  travers- 
ing these  three  States.  In  the  delightful  four  hours'  journey 
of  70  miles  from  Paranagua  to  the  capital,  the  climb  of  the 
Serra  do  Mar  up  a  steep  tropical  valley  is  made  without  cogs 
or  cables  by  means  of  high  trestles,  bridges,  and  17  tunnels; 
the  ride  rivaling  if  not  surpassing  in  beauty  the  more  famous 
one  from  Santos  to  Sao  Paulo. 

Sao  Paulo,  a  great  and  justly  famous  State,  about  the 
size  of  Arizona,  more  than  twice  that  of  New  York,  has 
Minas  Geraes  on  the  north,  also  east  with  a  small  extent  of 
the  State  of  Rio  de  Janeiro ;  the  ocean  is  southeast,  Parana 
south,  and  Matto  Grosso  west.  This  enterprising  State 
is  the  leader  in  agriculture,  producing  60  per  cent  of  the 
world's  coffee  supply,  besides  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  cereals, 
etc.,  in  large  quantities;  it  is  second  to  Rio  in  manufacturing 
industries,  contains  large  mineral  riches,  is  advanced  in 
stock  raising,  leads  in  educational  advantages,  and  has  the 
best  railway  service  of  4300  miles.  The  wealth  of  this  State 
is  estimated  as  at  $1,100,000,000  in  agriculture,  $500,000,000 
in  manufactures,  $170,000,000  in  railways,  and  $2,230,000,000 
miscellaneous.  While  most  of  it  is  in  the  torrid  zone,  the 
altitude  of  the  State  averaging  over  2000  feet  gives  it  (except 
for  the  narrow  coastal  strip)  a  fine  healthful  climate,  a 
blessing  enjoyed  too  by  the  States  previously  mentioned. 
In  the  Falls  of  its  rivers  the  State  possesses  3,000,000  horse 
power  of  which  only  250,000  is  employed. 

The  port  of  Santos,  population  80,000,  is  regularly  visited 
by  the  large  Transatlantic  and  North  American  steamers. 
It  is  called  one  of  the  best  and  most  important  ports  of  the 


BRAZIL  395 

world,  receiving  1600  ships  annually  besides  coasting  ves- 
sels. The  largest  ocean  steamers,  20-40  foot  draft,  come 
up  to  the  quay  which  extends  for  three  miles  along  the 
harbor  front;  fine  granite  walls  rise  five  feet  above  high 
water  mark  on  a  base  10-20  feet  thick.  Modern  machinery 
is  provided,  making  it  the  best  equipped  port  in  Brazil,  and 
nothing  is  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  efficiency  of  the 
service.  It  is  a  very  busy  city  though  warm.  The  heat 
does  not  prevent  people  from  rushing  about.  A  Brazilian 
writer  has  said,  "People  do  not  run,  they  fly."  The  reason 
for  this  unusual  haste,  by  no  means  manifest  in  Rio,  is  that 
many  prominent  business  men  come  daily,  others  occasion- 
ally, from  Sao  Paulo  by  morning  train,  returning  at  four 
P.M.  A  splendid  railway  which  will  be  referred  to  later,  leads 
to  that  important  city,  a  two  hours'  ride. 

The  capital  city,  Sao  Paulo,  310  miles  from  Rio  and  50 
from  Santos,  while  lacking  the  charm  of  Rio's  scenic  beauty, 
is  preferred  by  many  as  a  place  of  residence  on  acount  of 
its  cooler  climate,  the  greater  business  activity  apparent, 
and  the  cosmopolitan  society,  more  than  one  third  of  the 
population  being  of  foreign  birth  and  another  one  third 
direct  descendants  of  Europeans.  The  city  has  many  splen- 
did buildings,  both  public  and  private,  including  an  opera 
house  superior  to  any  in  the  United  States,  a  large  number 
of  excellent  schools  of  various  kinds,  and  all  the  attractions 
and  facilities,  except  good  and  adequate  hotels,  of  a  city  of 
half  a  million  inhabitants. 

The  Federal  District  of  Brazil,  the  capital,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  has  been  sufficiently  described  except  as  a  port 
city.  From  a  commercial  point  of  view  the  harbor  and  port 
works  are  the  chief  interest.  The  Guanabara  Bay  is  a  won- 
derful harbor,  not  merely  on  account  of  its  size,  depth  of 
water,  absolutely  safe  anchorage,  and  the  beauty  of  its  sur- 
roundings, but  it  is  extraordinary  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
hardly  a  mile  from  the  ocean  to  the  landing  docks.  Here 
a  granite  quay  extends  for  2^4  miles  along  the  water  front 


396  THE  EAST  COAST 

with  a  depth  of  water  alongside  of  31  feet.  The  deep 
channel  entrance  is  narrowed  to  a  mile  in  width  by  long 
narrow  peninsulas  extending  on  either  side  and  further  by 
a  small  island  blocking  the  waves.  The  docks  have  the 
additional  protection  of  a  projecting  point  of  the  city,  on 
the  other  side  of  which,  on  rare  occasions,  the  waves  do 
break  over  upon  the  splendid  boulevard.  The  larger  inner 
harbor  is  hardly  noticeable,  being  cut  off  by  peninsulas  and 
islands,  of  which  last  the  bay  contains  nearly  a  hundred. 
The  entire  bay  is  18  miles  long,  and  the  inner  section  is 
15  miles  wide.  At  the  docks  the  most  modern  machinery 
is  provided  for  hoisting,  loading  and  unloading  ships,  with 
electric  power  for  the  work  and  for  lighting.  A  width  of 
80  feet  was  left  for  railway  tracks ;  back  of  these  are  storage 
ware-houses,  administration  offices,  and  customs,  for  which 
a  space  of  no  feet  was  allowed.  Behind  these  buildings  is 
an  avenue  125  feet  wide,  with  double  tracks  on  which  run 
electric  cars.  Two  million  dollars  are  now  (1921)  to  be 
expended  for  additional  port  works,  an  extension  of  the 
granite  quay  or  dock  wall  about  2000  feet  and  two  break- 
waters of  800,000  cubic  feet. 

Rio  de  Janeiro.  This  State,  though  containing  or  sur- 
rounding the  capital,  is  distinct  from  it,  with  a  capital  of 
its  own  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  bay.  As  the  direction 
of  the  coast  line  changes  here,  the  State  has  the  ocean  east 
and  south;  Sao  Paulo  is  west,  Minas  Geraes  north,  and 
Espirito  Santo  at  the  northeast.  The  State  is  comparatively 
small,  being  only  about  one  sixth  the  size  of  its  western 
neighbor,  and  less  than  one  twelfth  of  its  northern;  it  is 
even  a  trifle  smaller  than  Espirito  Santo,  its  next  coastal 
neighbor. 

Nictheroy,  the  capital,  is  a  comparatively  small,  quiet 
town  of  65,000  population,  which  has  some  important  man- 
ufactories. The  State  has  other  smaller  towns,  as  Petrop- 
olis,  the  so-called  summer  capital,  population  30,000,  at  an 
elevation  of  3000  feet.  The  Parahyba  Rio  do  Sul,  which 


BRAZIL  397 

flows  northeast,  back  of  the  mountain  range,  is  navigable 
to  the  city  of  Campos,  population  30,000,  60  miles  from  its 
mouth.  The  agricultural  products  are  important,  the  State 
ranking  third  in  coffee  and  second  in  sugar.  Large  quan- 
tities of  corn  and  rice  are  raised,  the  coast  lands  with  lakes 
and  lagoons  being  well  suited  to  the  latter.  Valuable 
forests  and  minerals  exist,  and  in  manufacturing  industries 
of  great  variety  the  State  stands  first.  Besides  the  harbor 
of  Rio  there  are  a  number  of  good  though  small  ports. 

Espirito  Santo.  Little  Espirito  Santo,  northeast  of  Rio 
State,  has  Minas  at  the  west  and  Bahia  north.  The  prin- 
cipal products  of  the  State  are  coffee,  rice,  and  other  cereals, 
sugar,  cotton,  and  mandioca;  while  the  export  of  fine  timber, 
rosewood,  satin  and  brazil  wood,  is  increasing.  Gold  and 
precious  stones  are  its  chief  minerals.  Its  factories  are  few, 
but  the  town  of  Itaperim  on  a  navigable  river  has  cheap 
electric  power,  which  makes  it  a  fine  centre  for  industry 
in  the  future. 

The  capital  and  chief  city,  Victoria,  population  20,000, 
is  the  first  port  of  importance  north  of  Rio.  On  a  fine  bay 
2^2  miles  wide  with  a  narrow  entrance  of  less  than  %  a 
mile,  it  is  the  outlet  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  of 
Minas,  which  contains  the  richest  mineral  deposits  so  far 
exploited  in  Brazil.  A  railway  connects  the  port  with  in- 
terior cities.  Works  of  importance  have  been  planned,  a 
quay  ^  of  a  mile  long  with  28  feet  of  water  and  with  suit- 
able equipment;  the  widening  and  deepening  of  the  channel 
entrance,  and  the  building  of  a  steel  bridge  to  the  main  land 
from  the  island  on  which  the  city  stands.  Over  500  steam- 
ers and  200  sailing  vessels  clear  yearly. 

Bahia,  an  important  and  well  known  State,  the  largest 
yet  considered,  exceeding  California  in  area,  touches  three 
smaller  States  on  the  north,  Piauhy,  Pernambuco,  and 
Sergipe;  it  has  Espirito  Santo  and  Minas  on  the  south  and 
Goyaz  west.  All  kinds  of  tropical  and  subtropical  products 
are  found  here,  cacao,  sugar,  and  coffee  in  large  quantities, 


398  '  THE  EAST  COAST 

rubber  of  the  manigoba  and  mangabeira  varieties,  cotton, 
vanilla,  the  finest  kind  of  oranges  and  pine  apples,  and  other 
fruits.  Bahia  has  the  principal  whale  fisheries  of  the  country 
and  the  best  grounds  for  table  fish.  Its  mineral  wealth  includes 
even  the  sand,  monazite,  the  most  important  supply  in  the 
world. 

The  capital  and  chief  port,  720  miles  northeast  of  Rio, 
about  60  hours  sail,  is  generally  called  by  the  name  of  the 
State,  though  its  proper  title  is  Sao  Salvador.  It  has  an  excel- 
lent and  beautiful  harbor,  though  over-shadowed  by  the  more 
remarkable  picturesqueness  of  Rio.  The  bay,  Bahia  de  Todos 
os  Santos,  about  25  miles  wide  (three  at  the  entrance),  and 
20  miles  deep,  provides  good  anchorage  for  large  steamers,  40 
feet  close  in  shore.  It  is  a  port  of  call  for  Trans-Atlantic 
liners  and  for  steamers  from  North  America,  the  only  one 
north  of  Rio  for  some  of  the  Lines.  A  company  has  under- 
taken port  works  which  will  greatly  advance  the  prosperity 
of  City  and  State,  the  works  to  include  three  breakwaters  and 
two  quay  walls,  the  levelling  of  a  large  wharf  space,  erection 
of  store-houses,  laying  railway  lines,  installing  electric  cranes, 
and  constructing  a  floating  dock  and  a  lighthouse.  Over  1000 
large  steamers  with  2,300,000  tonnage  enter  the  port  annually. 
The  imports  are  $13,000,000,  the  exports  $20,000,000.  The  city 
is  connected  by  rail  with  various  cities  in  the  interior  of  the 
State,  and  with  the  Sao  Francisco  River  at  a  point  above  the 
Falls,  from  which  there  is  navigation  upstream  a  distance  of 
990  miles.  The  river  has  a  length  in  the  State  of  850  miles. 
Bahia  is  a  great  cocoa  port,  shipping  about  one-fifth  of  the 
world's  supply;  the  State  produces  about  as  much  tobacco  as 
Cuba. 

Sergipe,  the  smallest  of  all  the  States,  is  larger  than  nine 
of  ours,  a  trifle  bigger  than  Maryland  and  Delaware  together. 
The  Sao  Francisco  River  separates  it  from  Alagoas  on  the 
north,  it  has  Bahia  on  the  west  and  south.  Its  chief  products 
are  cotton,  sugar,  and  rice;  the  cattle  industry  is  important; 
the  State  has  profitable  manufacturing  industries ;  cotton  mills, 


BRAZIL  399 

sugar,  shoes,  soap,  and  other  factories,  and  unworked  mineral 
deposits. 

The  capital,  Aracaju,  population  40,000,  is  a  small  port 
with  95,000  tons  of  shipping  yearly;  but  it  suffers  the  disad- 
vantage of  receiving  ships  of  no  more  than  8  feet  draft,  and 
needs  the  improvements  now  planned. 

Alagoas,  of  triangular  shape,  has  Sergipe  on  one  side 
and  Pernambuco  on  the  other,  the  ocean  on  the  third.  Its 
main  products  are  sugar  and  cotton;  the  cattle  industry  is 
prosperous;  it  has  copper,  lead  and  iron  deposits,  not 
operated,  and  very  important  milling  industries,  particu- 
larly of  cotton.  The  Sao  Francisco  River  is  regularly 
navigated  175  miles  to  the  Paulo  Affonso  Falls,  around 
which  there  is  a  railway  52  miles  long  to  navigation  above. 

The  capital,  Maceio,  is  a  modern  city;  its  suburb,  the 
port,  Jaragua,  with  a  tonnage  of  600,000.  The  State  is  the 
most  thickly  populated  next  to  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Pernambuco,  the  twelfth  State  in  size,  with  area  equal 
to  that  of  New  York,  extends  well  into  the  interior,  though 
with  a  coast  line  of  112  miles  only.  Ceara  and  Parahyba 
are  on  the  north,  Alagoas  and  Bahia  on  the  south,  and 
Piauhy  on  the  west.  The  State  leads  in  the  production  of 
cotton  and  sugar,  sometimes  exporting  150,000  tons  of  the 
latter,  and  raw  cotton  worth  $5,000,000.,  Other  agricultural 
products  are  secondary,  but  cattle  and  dairying  are  impor- 
tant, still  more  the  milling  industry.  Minerals,  coal,  iron, 
saltpetre,  kaolin,  and  manganese  exist  in  paying  quantities. 
There  are  two  good  ports  besides  the  capital;  railways  con- 
nect Recife  with  Maceio  and  with  cities  inland. 

Recife  (often  called  Pernambuco),  capital  of  the  State, 
is  a  port  protected  by  a  coral  reef  parallel  to  the  shore, 
where  fine  works  are  being  constructed:  these  include  a 
breakwater  three-fourths  of  a  mile  long,  a  stone  jetty  one- 
half  a  mile;  quays,  one  with  33  feet  of  water,  one  with 
28-30,  together  three-fourths  of  a  mile  long,  also  other  equip- 
ment. One  thousand  steamers  are  its  annual  quota,  with 


400  THE  EAST  COAST 

tonnage  of  1,750,000;  the  city  has  obviously  great  commercial 
importance,  exporting  especially  cotton  and  sugar,  also  rum, 
hides,  and  cereals.  Its  imports  surpass  those  of  any  other 
Brazilian  city  except  Rio.  The  cost  of  living  is  high. 

Parahyba  has  on  the  north  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  Per- 
nambuco  south,  Ceara  west,  and  72  miles  of  coast  east. 
Cotton  is  the  chief  product,  and  mandioca  is  important. 
Vast  coconut  groves  of  trees,  growing  wild,  should  be  taken 
advantage  of.  The  pastoral  industry  is  important,  with 
goats  a  specialty  as  with  its  neighbors. 

A  little  below  the  capital,  Parahyba,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Parahyba  do  Norte,  is  the  seaport  Cabedello,  where 
port  works  are  planned. 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte  is  the  first  of  several  States  which 
have  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  north.  It  is  on  the  east 
also,  forming  a  coast  line  of  290  miles.  Parahyba  is  south 
and  Ceara  west.  Here,  too,  cotton  and  sugar  are  the  chief 
products,  though  180  tons  of  rubber  annually,  from  the 
mani$oba  trees,  are  of  value;  the  cattle  and  goats  are  impor- 
tant; carnauba  wax  and  vegetable  oils  come  from  the  forests; 
the  State,  from  natural  salines,  supplies  much  of  the  salt  used 
in  Brazil.  Dried  and  salt  fish  are  supplied  to  the  rest  of  the 
northern  States,  and  much  cotton  cloth  and  thread  are  ex- 
ported. Natal,  the  capital,  is  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  A  great  reservoir  with  a  dam  160  feet  high  and  a 
capacity  of  2,200,000,000  cubic  metres  of  water  is  to  be  con- 
structed, the  irrigation  of  250,000  acres  thereby  transforming 
a  large  district ;  others  here  and  in  Ceara. 

Ceara,  smaller  than  Pernambuco,  is  nearly  twice  the 
size  of  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  which  with  Parahyba  is  on 
the  east;  Pernambuco  is  south  and  Piauhy  west.  Cotton 
is  the  chief  product  though  coffee,  sugar,  cacao  and  cereals 
are  also  raised.  Cultivated  rubber  is  exported  as  from 
Bahia ;  the  cattle  industry  is  important,  though  affected  by 
occasional  severe  droughts.  However  there  are  approxi- 


BRAZIL  401 

mately  2,000,000  head  of  cattle.  Minerals  and  precious 
stones  are  found  in  variety. 

The  capital  and  port,  Fortaleza,  is  one  of  the  worst  on 
the  coast.  Three  powerful  dredges  are  maintained  by  the 
Government  for  the  continual  dredging  of  the  channel  into 
which  sand  from  the  dunes  is  ever  drifting.  Two  smaller 
ports  require  similar  dredging. 

Piauhy,  eighth  of  the  States  in  size,  with  a  deep  interior 
has  the  smallest  coast  line,  only  43  miles.  It  has  Ceara 
and  Pernambuco  east,  Bahia  south,  and  Maranhao  west, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Parnahyba  River.  The 
State  has  the  expected  agricultural  products,  vast  herds 
of  cattle  and  large  flocks  of  goats;  important  forest  wealth 
of  rubber,  timber,  wax,  and  medicinal  plants,  and  a  variety 
of  minerals.  It  has  one  seaport,  Amarragao,  but  a  good  deal 
goes  out  from  a  port  of  the  next  State,  Tutoya,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river  Parnahyba.  Therezina,  the  capital,  is 
of  some  importance. 

Maranhao,  a  little  larger,  has  Piauhy  east  and  south, 
Goyaz  south  and  west,  almost  touching  Bahia  between 
these  two;  it  has  Para  also  on  the  west.  Its  coast  line  is 
100  miles  more  than  Piauhy's.  Cotton  is  the  chief  agricul- 
tural product,  but  others  exist ;  the  cattle  industry  is  impor- 
tant, much  live  stock  going  to  Amazonas;  there  is  good 
forest  wealth,  various  minerals,  and  important  cotton  fac- 
tories. 

Sao  Luis  do  Maranhao,  the  capital,  population  50,000,  is 
called  the  chief  port  though  troubled  by  sand,  while  Tutoya 
is  excellent. 

Para,  a  name  at  last  familiar  to  all,  is  third  of  the  States 
in  area,  equal  to  Texas  and  California,  with  West  Virginia 
thrown  in.  It  has  Guiana  on  the  north,  with  the  Atlantic 
northeast;  east  are  Maranhao  and  Goyaz.  Matto  Grosso  is 
south,  and  Amazonas  west.  Its  chief  products  are  of  the 
forest,  particularly  rubber,  also  Brazil  nuts,  medicinal 
plants,  oils  and  timber.  Little  is  done  in  agriculture  though 


402  THE  EAST  COAST 

many  plants  grow  freely  such  as  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  and 
especially  cacao,  of  which  3500  tons  a  year  have  been  ex- 
ported. There  are  large  herds  of  cattle,  perhaps  2,000,000 
head,  and  various  minerals  are  founds  One  railway,  with 
branches,  leads  from  Para  to  Braganga,  near  the  ocean, 
and  to  other  towns ;  and  one  is  open  for  a  short  distance  in 
the  valley  of  the  Tocantins,  the  beginning  of  an  ambitious 
project. 

The  capital,  Belem,  usually  called  by  foreigners  Para 
is  a  fine  city  of  200,000  and  the  only  considerable  seaport, 
if  so  it  may  be  termed,  as  it  is  on  a  bay  of  the  Para  River 
80  miles  from  the  ocean.  Mean  temperature  78°.  Harbor 
works,  begun  in  1906,  and  costing  over  $60,000,000,  have 
been  of  immense  value.  They  include  a  fine  quay  a  mile 
and  a  half  long  with  a  depth  of  water  part  of  the  way  of 
30  feet,  docks  and  storehouses,  two  floating  docks,  a  Custom 
House,  oil  storage  tanks,  etc.  One  thousand  steamers 
formerly  entered  yearly  with  tonnage  of  1,500,000;  imports 
at  one  time  were  valued  at  $15,000,000  and  exports  at  $30,- 
000,000.  A  channel  from  the  outer  river,  30  feet  in  depth, 
is  marked  by  26  buoys  lighted  by  acetylene  gas.  The  city 
is  notable  with  attractive  plazas,  a  unique  forest  park,  a 
museum,  a  white  marble  theatre,  and  a  good  hotel.  The 
various  cities  or  villages  are  coast  or  river  ports,  some  on 
the  Amazon,  others  on  the  Tapajos,  Xingu,  Tocantins, 
Araguary,  or  smaller  streams. 

Amazonas,  first  of  the  inland  States,  and  the  largest  of 
all,  has  Colombia  and  Venezuela  north,  Para  east,  Matto 
Grosso,  Bolivia,  and  Acre  south,  and  Peru  and  Colombia 
west.  Its  area  is  equal  to  that  of  our  three  Pacific  Coast 
States  with  Idaho,  Montana,  Nevada,  and  Colorado.  In  this 
great  space  the  population,  estimated  at  435,000,  is  about 
one  person  to  il/2  square  miles.  Manaos,  the  capital,  and  the 
various  other  centres  of  population  by  the  river  side  mean 
rubber.  There  are  no  roads  except  of  water,  no  paths  save 
those  made  by  rubber  gatherers,  with  a  few  by  Indians, 


BRAZIL  403 

the  number  of  whom  is  a  mere  guess.  All  tropical  products 
thrive  but  their  production  is  negligible  save  that  of  rubber. 
Various  minerals  are  uriexploited.  Manaos,  924  miles  from 
Para,  1030  from  the  ocean,  and  2000  from  Rio,  is  the  first 
real  city  in  the  wilderness,  though  Obidos,  still  in  the  State 
of  Para,  is  a  port  where  300  vessels  call  in  a  year,  and  a 
number  of  smaller  places  claim  that  title. 

Manaos,  a  city  of  60,000  population,  is  located  just  off  the 
Amazon  seven  miles  up  the  Rio  Negro,  on  a  large  quiet 
bay.  Port  works  have  been  constructed,  a  fine  stone  wall 
over  1500  feet  long,  with  floating  docks  to  fit  the  50  foot 
rise  and  fall  of  the  river,  and  16  electrically  equipped  ware- 
houses conveniently  arranged.  Considering  its  location,  it 
is  a  wonderful  city,  well  lighted,  with  a  splendid  opera 
house,  expensive  of  course,  a  fine  cathedral,  schools,  a 
public  library,  museum,  and  good  sanitation.  One  thousand 
four  hundred  miles  farther  is  the  Peruvian  city  of  Iquitos, 
near  the  limit  of  navigation  for  ocean  vessels  on  the  main 
stream.  Some  distance  below  Manaos  the  Amazon  is 
entered  by  the  Madeira  River  which  gives  access  to  the 
State  of  Matto  Grosso  and  to  Bolivia. 

Matto  Grosso  is  second  in  size,  equal  to  the  States  men- 
tioned above  without  Nevada  and  Colorado.  Estimated 
population  275,000.  This  State  has  Amazonas  and  Para 
on  the  north,  Goyaz,  Minas  Geraes,  Sao  Paulo,  and  Parana 
on  the  east,  Paraguay  and  Bolivia  are  on  the  south, 
and  Paraguay  and  Bolivia  west.  The  State  is  much  more 
open  than  Amazonas;  its  chief  industry  is  cattle.  Forest 
products  however  abound,  with  all  kinds  of  rubber  and 
magnificent  timber.  There  are  large  agricultural  possibili- 
ties and  considerable  matte  is  exported.  Diamonds  and 
auriferous  sands  are  exploited  though  their  origin  is  uncer- 
tain. The  river  systems  north  and  south  meet  in  the  high- 
lands, and  connection  might  be  made  by  a  short  canal, 
opening  a  way  from  Para  or  Manaos  to  Buenos  Aires. 

Cuyaba,  the  capital,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  an 


404  THE  EAST  COAST 

affluent  of  the  Paraguay,  is  quite  a  city,  population  32,000, 
although  1045  miles  above  Asuncion,  while  Corumba,  lower 
down,  on  the  Paraguay,  is  of  nearly  equal  size.  The  river 
at  Corumba  is  1000  feet  wide,  and  6  feet  deep  at  the  docks 
at  low  water.  Corumba  is  regularly  visited  by  steamers, 
though  1800  miles  by  river  from  Montevideo.  Its  export 
and  import  trade  amounts  to  at  least  $4,000,000  annually. 

Goyaz,  the  fourth  State  in  size,  following  Para,  has 
Maranhao  on  the  north,  Maranhao,  Bahia,  and  Minas  Geraes 
are  on  the  east,  Minas  and  Matto  Grosso  are  south,  and 
Matto  Grosso  and  Para  west.  Three  hundred  thousand 
is  the  estimated  population  with  a  guess  at  the  number  of 
Indians  of  many  tribes.  The  principal  industry  is  stock 
raising  and  many  cattle  are  exported  to  neighboring  States. 
The  forests  have  the  manlqoba  and  the  mangabeira  rubber, 
also  a  vegetable  silk,  paina.  There  are  great  mineral  riches, 
placer  gold  in  many  streams,  and  veins  in  the  hills;  many 
diamonds  and  rock  crystal  are  also  produced.  Other  metals 
as  iron  and  copper  exist.  Navigable  rivers  are  the  means 
of  communication  as  in  the  neighboring  States,  but  a  rail- 
road is  coming  and  more  rapid  development  will  follow. 

The  capital,  Goyaz,  is  not  much  of  a  place,  though  of 
late  evincing  progress.  Several  other  cities  have  from  5000 
to  10,000  inhabitants. 

Minas  Geraes,  the  fourth  inland  State  and  the  fifth  in 
size,  has  Bahia  on  the  north,  Bahia  and  Espirito  Santo 
east,  Rio  de  Janeiro  southeast,  Sao  Paulo  southwest,  and 
Goyaz  west,  a  small  southwest  corner  about  reaching  Matto 
Grosso  below.  Although  without  a  seaport  and  with  no 
large  city,  Minas  is  the  most  populous  of  the  States,  with 
an  active  industrious  population.  The  State  leads  in  mineral 
riches  of  almost  every  kind;  it  is  one  of  the  foremost  in 
agriculture  of  all  varieties,  being  second  to  Sao  Paulo  in 
coffee;  it  has  vast  pasture  lands,  exporting  300,000  head  of 
cattle  a  year,  a  sugar  refinery,  flour  mills,  and  a  great 
dairy  industry.  It  has  increasing  railway  service  as  well  as 


BRAZIL  405 

river  transportation.  It  is  believed  to  have  a  mineral  future 
rivaling  that  of  the  best  region  in  the  world.  Its  factories 
are  important  and  there  is  a  great  store  of  water  power. 

Bello  Horizonte,  the  present  capital,  was  made  to  order 
in  1897,  and  is  well  laid  out  with  broad  streets,  water  supply, 
sewerage,  everything  of  the  best  type:  a  Government 
Palace,  the  finest  State  building  of  Brazil,  and  a  fine  Agri- 
cultural School.  Ouro  Preto,  the  old  capital,  has  a  free 
Mining  School,  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  in  the  world. 

The  Acre  Territory,  triangular  in  shape,  has  Amazonas 
north,  Bolivia  south,  and  Peru  west.  It  is  naturally  similar 
to  the  neighboring  sections.  There  are  three  Districts: 
Jurua,  of  which  the  capital  is  Cruzeiro  do  Sul,  population 
2000,  1351  miles  from  Manaos;  Purus,  capital,  Senna 
Madureira,  population  4000,  1320  miles  from  Manaos;  and 
Acre,  capital  Rio  Branco,  population  2000,  1351  miles  from 
Manaos. 


CHAPTER  XLVIII 

BRAZIL:  TRANSPORTATION— OCEAN,  RIVER, 
AND  RAILWAY 

OCEAN  AND  RIVER  TRAFFIC 

Brazil  has  a  considerable  navy,  several  warships;  and 
a  merchant  marine  of  450,000  gross  tonnage.  The  leading 
national  line  is  the  Brazilian  Lloyd  which  with  62  ships 
has  a  service  to  the  United  States  as  well  as  a  coastwise, 
the  latter  shared  by  the  Navegagao  Costeira  and  other  com- 
panies. Rio  de  Janeiro  has  three  dry  docks,  one  with  a 
capacity  for  the  largest  battleships,  and  a  yard  where  ships 
are  constructed.  The  country  has  30,000  miles  of  navigable 
rivers,  with  boats  for  these  having  a  tonnage  of  75,000. 

Coastwise  and  river  steamers  have  service  in  the  Amazon 
Basin,  the  most  important  as  follows:  Para-Obidos- 
Manaos,  975  miles;  Para-Santarem-Itaituba  (Rio  Tapajos) 
729  miles;  Para-Maues,  Para  Tocantins,  1544  miles;  Taba- 
tinga  (Frontier)  Remate  dos  Males,  1743  miles;  Para-Santo 
Antonio  (Madeira)  1617  miles;  Para-Rio,  Peru-Senna- 
Madureira,  1934  miles;  Para-Chaves  (Marajos  Island), 
Oyapock  River;  Manaos  and  Rio  Negro  to  Santa  Isabel, 
423  miles ;  Manaos  to  the  Yapura  River — to  the  Jurua  River, 
Cruzeiro  do  Sul,  1090  miles. 

Other  companies  have  service,  Maranhao  north  to  Para, 
599  miles,  south  to  Pernambuco  884  miles;  Recife  north 
to  Maranhao  803  miles,  south  to  Bahia  385  miles,  east  to 
Fernando  do  Noronha  Island,  239  miles.  On  the  Sao 
Francisco  River,  Januaria  to  Pirapora.  Other  Lines  serve 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  ports  south  to  Laguna  and  Ribeira 

406 


BRAZIL  407 

de  Iguape,  Sao  Paulo ;  also  on  the  Parana  and  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  on  the  Lakes  Patos  and  Mirim.  Service  from 
Rio  de  Janeiro  to  Corumba,  765  miles  above  Asuncion,  and 
280  miles  farther  to  Cuyaba  on  the  Cuyaba  River,  in  time 
of  high  water  is  continued  on  the  Paraguay  250  miles  beyond 
to  Sao  Luiz  de  Caceres. 

RAILWAY  TRANSPORTATION 

While  the  great  rivers  of  Brazil  with  their  27,000  miles 
of  navigable  waters  have  been  a  large  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country,  of  equal  importance  for  the  future  is 
transportation  by  rail.  The  total  present  mileage,  second 
to  that  of  Argentina,  exceeds  16,500,  these  having  developed 
from  9^  miles  in  1854  and  about  10,000,  50  years  later. 
About  90  per  cent  are  of  metre  gauge.  For  the  economic 
unity  of  the  great  Republic,  the  Government  policy  is  favor- 
able to  a  rapid  extension  of  the  present  railway  systems,  a 
matter  as  important  as  was  the  creation  of  our  railways 
to  the  Pacific  50  years  ago.  The  development  in  Brazil 
has  been  retarded  by  the  difficult  topography  of  the  country, 
in  striking  contrast  to  the  Argentine  plains.  Along  the 
greater  and  better  part  of  the  coast  is  the  high  steep  wall 
of  the  plateau  region,  which  must  be  climbed  to  enter  the 
interior.  Once  at  the  top  the  way  in  some  sections  is 
easier,  but  in  others  there  are  additional  mountain  ranges. 
The  wall,  obviously  low  in  comparison  with  the  mighty 
rampart  of  the  Andes,  presents  difficulties,  but  none  to 
compare  with  those  experienced  in  Peru. 

The  first  railway,  built  and  operated  in  1854,  was  from 
Maua  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Rio  harbor  to  Fragosa. 
Soon  after  carried  to  Petropolis,  it  is  now  a  part  of  the 
Leopoldina  Railway  system.  Only  two  South  American 
railways  antedate  this,  the  Demarara  of  British  Guiana 
and  the  Caldera-Copiapo  in  Chile. 

The  Central  of  Brazil  Railway  was  the  first  of  much 


408  THE  EAST  COAST 

importance,  its  first  section,  32  miles,  opened  in  1858.  For 
this  road  leading  out  of  Rio  expenses  were  heavy.  Many 
were  the  difficulties  of  construction,  tunnels,  bridges,  etc., 
the  boring  of  one  tunnel,  only  il/2  miles  long,  requiring 
seven  years.  The  system,  now  in  Government  ownership, 
has  a  network  of  lines  extending  from  Rio  to  the  city  of 
Sao  Paulo,  to  Bello  Horizonte  in  Minas,  and  to  other  points. 
It  has  express  trains  with  sleeping  cars  (state  rooms),  and 
a  heavy  suburban  traffic.  It  is  intended  to  carry  this 
system  northward  to  the  city  of  Para,  with  branches  to  new 
territory.  Twenty-five  million  passengers  are  carried 
annually  with  much  freight  of  coffee,  lumber,  iron,  manga- 
nese, etc.  The  railway  is  to  be  electrified  near  the  capital 
with  a  Government  appropriation  of  $32,760,000. 

The  Sao  Paulo  Railway.  The  most  successful,  finan- 
cially and  otherwise,  of  the  railways  of  Brazil  is  no  doubt 
the  Sao  Paulo,  operating  a  double  track,  broad  gauge  line 
(5  feet  6  inches)  from  Santos  to  the  town  and  junction, 
Jundiahy  (population  20,000),  86  miles;  it  passes  through 
the  city,  Sao  Paulo,  and  has  a  branch  to  Braganga,  65 
miles.  This  road  has  a  granted  monopoly  of  trade  between 
the  two  cities,  Santos  and  Sao  Paulo,  50  miles  apart.  This, 
in  spite  of  the  great  expense  of  the  railway  construction, 
has  insured  them  large  profits,  dividends  in  1912-13  being 
14  per  cent.  The  train  mile  earnings  are  the  largest  in 
South  America  and  normally  are  greater  than  any  reported 
in  the  United  States.  With  the  construction  of  more  and 
more  lines  in  this  State  and  beyond,  a  steady  increase  in 
the  traffic  seems  assured,  as  nearly  all  must  pass  in  and  out 
by  way  of  Santos.  The  road  now  carries  annually  more 
than  half  of  the  world's  coffee  supply. 

One  of  many  engineering  triumphs  in  South  America, 
the  railway  is  ranked  among  the  greater  achievements  of 
the  world.  An  ascent  of  2600  feet  is  made  within  seven 
miles.  Beginning  15  feet  above  the  sea  not  far  from  Santos 
five  inclined  planes  with  8  per  cent  grade,  each  il/2  miles 


BRAZIL  409 

long,  serve  for  the  rapid  climb.  A  stationary  engine  at  the 
top  of  each  plane  runs  the  cables;  to  grip  these  a  small 
engine  is  attached  to  each  car.  The  tracks  seem  unique. 
The  double  track  on  the  inclines  has  but  three  rails  for  up 
and  down  cars,  which  therefore  cannot  meet  there,  but  may 
on  the  intermediate  levels  of  which  there  are  four,  each 
600  feet  long.  On  each  side  between  the  middle  and  the 
outside  rails  are  the  pulleys  which  carry  the  cable,  an  end- 
less steel  wire  of  enormous  strength  run  by  a  1000  horse 
power  engine,  capable  of  carrying  six  freight  or  three  pas- 
senger cars  at  the  same  time.  In  this  short  section  are  16 
viaducts,  15  tunnels,  and  two  miles  of  retaining  wall.  One 
viaduct  is  334  feet  long,  and  nearly  150  feet  high  in  the 
centre.  There  are  now  two  of  these  double  roads,  one  just 
above  the  other,  as  I  have  seen,  and  not  on  a  different  route 
as  stated  elsewhere.  The  first  soon  proving  insufficient  to 
accommodate  the  freight,  the  second  was  built  with  a  few 
technical  improvements.  It  is  a  wonderful  ride  through 
tropical  forests,  with  scenes  of  picturesque  beauty. 

The  Sorocabana  Railway,  864  miles,  which  traverses  a 
rich  and  progressive  part  of  Brazil  opening  up  new  territory, 
has  important  connections  with  other  lines.  This  Company 
has  several  lines  running  west  and  northwest  from  Sao 
Paulo.  One  of  the  most  important  is  to  Bauru,  a  city  also 
on  the  Paulista  Railway.  From  this  point  the  North  West- 
ern Railway  has  continued  the  line  to  Itapura  on  the  Parana 
River  and  across  the  State  of  Matto  Grosso  to  Porto 
Esperanga  on  the  Paraguay,  about  40  miles  by  land  from 
Corumba  on  the  west  side  of  the  River,  and  80  by  water. 
Probably  a  train-car  ferry  will  later  be  provided  at  Espe- 
ranga  and  the  road  continued  on  the  other  side  to  Corumba. 
By  the  present  road  connection  is  made  with  Bolivia 
opposite,  and  by  water  with  Paraguay  farther  down,  the 
capital  Asuncion  being  about  700  miles  distant,  Montevideo 
nearly  1800.  Previously  to  the  completion  of  this  railway 
Corumba  and  that  section  of  Brazil  was  reached  from  Rio 


410  THE  EAST  COAST 

only  by  a  long,  long  sail,  three  weeks  (farther  than  to 
Europe)  by  steamers  of  the  Brazilian  Lloyd  Line.  After 
making  calls  along  the  Brazilian  coast,  at  Montevideo  and 
Buenos  Aires,  these  boats  continue  up  the  Parana  and 
Paraguay  Rivers,  arriving  at  last  once  more  in  their  own 
country.  This  new  railway  and  others  now  in  construction 
will  be  an  immense  factor  in  opening  the  great  central 
table-land  of  Brazil,  with  its  rich  possibilities  for  agricul- 
ture, cattle  raising,  and  mining. 

The  Sao  Paulo-Rio  Grande,  another  important  railway, 
853  miles,  runs  from  Sao  Paulo  to  Sant'  Anna  do  Livramento 
on  the  border  of  Uruguay,  where  it  connects  with  the  Cen- 
tral Uruguay  Railway  to  Montevideo.  Improvements  have 
been  made  so  that  with  better  connections  and  sleeping  cars 
to  the  border,  which  were  lacking  part  of  the  way  in  1916, 
the  journey  is  now  made  in  comfort  in  4l/2  days  to  Mon- 
tevideo, The  road  runs  through  a  rich,  often  beautiful 
country;  in  some  places  with  splendid  scenery  and  fine 
forests,  in  others  with  open  grazing  lands  where  good  cattle 
are  visible,  past  small  towns  and  pleasant  rivers.  People 
who  are  willing  to  work  could  find  agreeable  homes  in  this 
section  with  excellent  temperate  climate.  Low  land  values 
are  spoken  of,  which  if  genuine  should  make  this  an  attrac- 
tive region  now  that  fairly  good  transportation  exists  with 
more  in  prospect.  This  line  has  several  branches  of  its 
own,  while  other  railways  are  connected  with  the  through 
line,  local  roads  to  ports  or  to  interior  towns.  One  of  these, 
the  Parana  Railway,  has  its  main  line  from  the  port  Para- 
nagua  to  the  State  capital,  Curityba,  and  to  Ponta  Grossa 
on  the  Sao  Paulo-Rio  Grande;  it  has  north  and  south 
branches,  the  latter  to  Rio  Negro  and  to  Sao  Francisco. 

The  southern  part  of  the  Sao  Paulo-Rio  Grande  Line 
belonged  to  the  Compagnie  Aux  Chemins  de  Fer  de  Brasil 
which  had  a  concession  for  the  entire  State  of  Rio  Grande. 
Roads  from  Porto  Alegre  and  from  the  city  of  Rio  Grande 
extend  to  the  line  from  Sao  Paulo,  thus  making  connection 


BRAZIL  411 

with  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires.  From  the  Cacequy 
junction  a  line  goes  west  to  Uruguayana  on  the  Uruguay 
River.  Along  this  river  the  Brazil  Great  Southern  operates 
in  Rio  Grande  no  miles  from  Quarahim  on  the  Uruguay 
border  through  Uruguayana  north  to  Itaqui,  with  an  exten- 
sion to  Sao  Borja  77  miles  farther  up.  At  Quarahim  an 
international  bridge  700  yards  long  connects  the  Brazil 
and  Uruguay  Railways.  Across  the  Uruguay  River  con- 
nection is  made  from  Uruguayana  with  Argentine  Rail- 
ways, and  a  direct  route  to  Buenos  Aires. 

There  are  other  roads  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  which 
has  the  best  system  in  Brazil  and  the  most  mileage:  over 
4000. 

The  Paulista  Railway,  extending  northwest  from 
Jundiahy  through  rich  coffee  territory  with  Barretos  a 
recent  terminal,  has  many  branches  and  a  mileage  of  721. 

The  Mogyana  goes  much  farther  north,  crossing  a  corner 
of  Minas  and  entering  the  State  of  Goyaz,  on  the  way  to 
the  capital  city  of  that  name.  It  has  arrived  at  Santa  Cruz, 
still  quite  a  distance  from  Goyaz,  though  with  a  total  mile- 
age of  1081. 

The  Southern  Sao  Paulo  Railway  runs  along  or  near  the 
coast  100  miles  from  Santos  to  Juquia., 

The  Leopoldina.  An  important  British  line  or  system 
nearly  2000  miles  in  length  is  the  Leopoldina,  the  main  line 
extending  from  Nictheroy,  on  the  bay  shore  opposite  Rio, 
to  Friburgo,  Campos,  Victoria,  Leopoldina,  and  other  points 
in  the  States  of  Rio,  Minas,  and  Espirito  Santo.  Lines  run 
also  from  Rio  and  Maua  up  the  mountain  to  Petropolis  and 
beyond,  connecting  with  the  main  line.  This  follows  the 
Parahyba  Valley  for  some  distance  and  then  crosses  four 
mountain  ranges,  a  work  involving  many  unusual  feats  of 
engineering.  On  the  main  line  the  maximum  grade  is  8 
per  cent,  on  the  Petropolis  section  15  per  cent.  The  territory 
traversed  is  highly  productive,  and  in  spite  of  expensive 
construction  good  returns  in  normal  times  are  assured. 


412  THE  EAST  COAST 

The  Great  Western.  Under  British  control  is  the  Great 
Western  Railway  which  has  Pernambuco  as  its  centre. 
Lines  extend  north  along  the  coast  and  also  to  the  interior 
with  looo  mileage  in  the  several  states  of  Pernambuco, 
Alagoas,  Parahyba,  and  Rio  Grande  do  Norte.  It  reaches 
the  ports  of  Maceio,  Parahyba,  Cabedello  and  Natal.  Two 
and  a  half  million  passengers  were  carried  in  one  year  and 
much  freight. 

In  the  state  of  Bahia  short  lines  run  back  to  the  interior, 
one,  140  miles,  from  Nazareth,  south  of  the  bay,  and  one 
from  Sao  Felix,  165  miles,  to  Santo  Amaro,  serving  the  best 
sugar  district,  as  Nazareth  that  of  cacao  and  manganese 
ores.  The  principal  road  is  from  Bahia,  281  miles,  to 
Joazeiro,  on  the  Sao  Francisco  River;  the  oldest,  opened  in 
1860,  is  along  the  coast  to  Aracaju  in  Sergipe,  268  miles. 
Two  other  small  railways  are  farther  south,  in  all  about 
950  miles. 

The  Brazil  North  East  Railway  operates  in  Ceara  about 
472  miles,  one  division  from  the  port  of  Forteleza,  another 
from  the  port  Camocim  to  Gran j  a  and  Crato. 

The  State  of  Para  has  less  mileage  than  most  of  the 
others,  the  short  line,  40  miles  built,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Tocantins  and  Araguaya  to  avoid  bad  cascades.  Another 
road,  the  Braganc.a,  runs  northeast  from  Para  to  the  Atlantic 
Coast. 

The  Madeira-Mamore  is  in  some  respects  the  most 
remarkable  railway  in  Brazil,  perhaps  in  the  world.  It  was 
built  in  accordance  with  a  treaty  with  Bolivia  in  settlement 
of  the  Acre  difficulty,  and  in  compensation  for  the  surrender 
by  that  country  of  the  Acre  Territory,  to  give  access  to 
that  Republic  by  making  a  way  around  the  prohibitive  falls 
and  rapids  on  the  Madeira  and  the  Mamore  Rivers.  In  the 
heart  of  the  wilderness,  570  miles  up  the  Madeira  River 
and  about  noo  miles  from  the  sea,  this  road,  202  miles  long, 
was  constructed.  In  1871  an  American,  Colonel  George 
Earl  Church,  a  Civil  War  veteran,  and  a  distinguished  civil 


BRAZIL  413 

engineer,  turned  the  first  sod  of  the  railway,  but  work  was 
soon  suspended.  In  1877  P.  T.  Collins  of  Philadelphia 
undertook  the  task  and  completed  20  miles  of  railway,  but 
the  difficulties  were  too  great,  especially  the  mortality, 
modern  methods  of  sanitation  not  then  being  understood; 
the  work  was  therefore  abandoned.  In  1907  the  recent 
operations  were  begun,  again  in  charge  of  Americans,  and 
the  road  was  opened  for  traffic,  July  15,  1912.  From  Porto 
Velho  the  road  runs  up  the  river  to  Guajara-Mirim,  the 
road  of  course  on  the  Brazilian  side  of  the  river,  and  in  the 
State  of  Matto  Grosso,  which  is  thus  made  accessible  as  well 
as  Bolivia.  The  new  little  American  town  of  Porto  Velho 
of  1500  population  has  an  ice  plant  making  six  tons  a  day, 
a  wireless  telegraph  to  Manaos  and  other  conveniences.  The 
road  passes  through  a  jungle  which  is  cut  out  100  feet  wide. 
Two  days  are  required  for  the  short  journey.  At  Abuna 
they  halt  for  the  night;  leaving  early  next  morning  they 
should  arrive  at  the  terminus  at  3 115.  About  60  miles  south 
of  Abuna,  Villa  Murtinho  is  passed,  opposite  the  town  of 
Villa  Bella  in  Bolivia,  at  the  junction  of  the  Beni  and  the 
Mamore,  which  two  rivers  form  the  Madeira.  A  road  across 
from  Villa  Church  opposite  Guajara-Mirim  or  from  Villa 
Bella  to  Riberalta  on  the  Beni  was  in  the  plan,  as  the  Beni 
below  Riberalta  is  unnavigable  on  account  of  rapids. 
Automobile  roads  are  now  in  construction,  at  least  one  from 
Riberalta  to  Puerto  Bello  (Villa  Bella)  or  to  Villa  Church. 


CHAPTER  XLIX 
BRAZIL:  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

Brazilian  industries  as  we  have  already  seen  have  the 
variety  befitting  a  country  of  its  enormous  area.  The  States 
of  Minas,  Pernambuco,  and  Sao  Paulo  can  produce  almost 
anything,  but  even  these  have  specialties.  Of  the  various 
products  of  Brazil,  as  in  the  other  South  American  countries 
except  Bolivia,  the  vegetable  are  the  most  important,  with 
coffee  far  in  the  lead.  Stock  raising  comes  next;  minerals 
of  prodigious  variety  and  richness  are  third.  Manufactures, 
developing  later,  may  in  time  largely  satisfy  the  require- 
ments of  the  inhabitants. 

AGRICULTURE 

Coffee,  we  all  know,  is  in  value  the  most  important  crop 
of  the  country,  growing  over  vast  areas,  chiefly  in  what  we 
may  call  the  northern  part  of  South  Brazil,  the  States  on 
or  near  the  edge  of  the  tropics,  Sao  Paulo,  Rio,  Minas,  and 
Espirito  Santo.  North  and  south  of  these  States  coffee 
grows  and  flourishes  more  or  less  according  to  local  con- 
ditions. There  are  said  to  be  1,400,000,000  coffee  trees  in 
Brazil,  which  produce  perhaps  three-fourths  of  the  world 
supply,  more  than  half  of  them  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo. 
The  State  contains  about  60,000  plantations.  Probably 
more  than  il/2  billions  are  invested  in  the  industry,  $900,- 
000,000  in  Sao  Paulo.  The  larger  part  of  the  crop  moves 
over  the  wonderful  railway  between  Sao  Paulo  and  Santos 
and  goes  out  from  that  port,  some  from  adjoining  States  as 
well  as  from  Sao  Paulo.  For  ten  years  the  average  value  of 
the  coffee  exported  was  $120,000,000. 

414 


BRAZIL  415 

Great  fortunes  were  made  by  some  who  embarked  many 
years  ago  in  the  business ;  the  coffee  king,  Colonel  Schmidt, 
who  has  8,000,000  trees  and  produces  11,000  or  12,000  tons  of 
coffee  yearly,  was  himself  a  poor  immigrant.  But  the  best 
lands  were  taken  up  long  since ;  production  is  increasing  in 
other  countries,  as  well  as  consumption,  and  there  is  not 
now  the  opportunity  of  earlier  days.  Sao  Paulo  especially 
has  the  rich  red  soil  that  the  plant  loves,  the  sloping  ground, 
the  right  climate,  and  the  water  supply,  over  a  greater 
extent  of  accessible  territory,  probably,  than  any  other  land 
in  the  world;  though  districts  in  other  countries  produce 
coffee  of  equal  excellence.  Here  of  course  there  are  dif- 
ferent varieties  and  grades,  the  original  plants  having  been 
imported  from  Arabia  and  Java  and  preserving  their  charac- 
teristics. Life  on  the  faezendas,  as  the  farms  are  called, 
is  agreeable  both  for  the  rich  proprietor  and  for  the  Italian 
and  other  laborer,  who  has  his  own  garden  and  whose  wife 
and  children  help  in  the  picking  season.  The  rows  of  trees 
extend  for  miles  in  even  lines;  there  are  great  cement  dry- 
ing grounds  in  the  sun,  pulping  machinery,  and  store- 
houses. The  business  generally  is  in  the  hands  of  Brazilians, 
though  there  are  foreign  stock  companies,  paying  large 
dividends.  Coffee  is  about  40  per  cent  of  the  Brazil  exports 
and  97  per  cent  of  Sao  Paulo's. 

Cacao.  Other  agricultural  industries  are  of  importance 
and  capable  of  infinite  expansion.  Cacao  is  a  product  the 
consumption  of  which  is  rapidly  increasing.  Bahia  stands 
second  in  production,  a  crop  of  40,000  tons  being  exported 
from  the  city  in  1917.  Cacao  forms  60  per  cent  of  the  State's 
export.  Large  areas  of  suitable  land  are  said  to  be  avail- 
able for  plantations  in  States  south  of  the  Amazon,  including 
North  Sao  Paulo  and  Matto  Grosso.  That  grown  in 
Maranhao  ranks  as  the  best.  The  groves  run  inland  along 
the  river  valleys,  full  of  rich  red  soil.  There  are  two  gather- 
ing seasons,  one  from  September  to  April,  the  next  crop 
beginning  in  May,  less  important.  It  is  said  that  one  person 


416  THE  EAST  COAST 

can  take  care  of  1000  trees,  which  yield  from  5  to  13,  some- 
times 20  pounds  annually,  A  plantation  at  pre-war  prices 
cost  80-85  cents  a  tree.  Three  hundred  are  planted  to  an 
acre.  The  investment  of  a  moderate  sum  is  pretty  sure  to 
give  good  returns  after  three  or  four  years. 

Sugar  plantations  are  increasing  and  sugar  is  exported 
in  considerable  quantities.  This  was  one  of  Brazil's  earliest 
industries,  but  languished  on  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
I7th  century,  to  be  followed  by  several  revivals.  The 
amount  exported  varies,  in  1909  it  was  70,000  tons,  in  1916, 
54,000.  It  is  cultivated  near  the  coast  and  inland,  chiefly 
from  Rio  Grande  do  Norte  south  to  Sao  Paulo,  though  it 
is  also  raised  down  to  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  where  the  1916 
crop  was  worth  $3,000,000.  In  one  year  441,000  tons  were 
produced,  109,000  exported.  The  yield  in  some  States  far- 
ther north  is  20  tons  to  the  acre.  In  general  little  fertilizing 
is  done  and  crop  rotation  is  not  followed,  so  that  lands  have 
become  degenerate  after  centuries.  The  most  flourishing 
seats  of  the  industry  are  in  Rio,  and  in  Pernambuco,  1000 
miles  north.  In  Rio,  Campos  is  the  focus.  The  State  has 
31  large  sugar  mills,  Pernambuco  has  46.  Sao  Paulo  is 
third,  other  States  have  fewer,  but  small  mills  are  scattered 
everywhere  making  brown  sugar  and  cachaca,  native  rum. 
In  the  large  mills  the  best  machinery  is  used,  and  it  is  said 
that  300,000  tons  is  the  total  output.  The  export  is  to  Uruguay, 
Argentina,  Great  Britain,  United  States,  and  Portugal.  Almost 
every  cotton,  coffee,  or  other  faezenda  grows  its  own  sugar. 
Eighty  or  ninety  pounds  a  head  are  used.  Cane  ripens  in  the 
northern  States  in  about  15  months;  south  of  Rio  in  18-20 
months. 

Tobacco  was  in  use  in  Brazil  in  prehistoric  days.  The 
State  of  Bahia  is  the  centre  of  the  largest  production,  though 
it  is  raised  in  almost  every  State.  The  quality  varies  in 
different  localities,  but  in  some  it  is  said  to  be  equal  to  the 
best  Havana,  especially  in  Bahia,  where  the  soil  is  similar. 
Forty-five  thousand  tons  were  exported  in  1902,  chiefly  to 


BRAZIL  417 

Germany;  in  1916,  2100  tons,  valued  at  over  $7,000,000. 
A  plantation  of  37  acres  earns  $10,000  a  year. 

The  Coconut  is  another  product,  which  might  be  more 
important.  It  is  found  near  the  coast  from  Parahyba  to 
Bahia,  1,250,000  trees  bearing  50,000,000  nuts,  the  size  of 
which  compares  well  with  others.  One  hundred  million 
trees  are  also  reported.  At  present  there  is  practically  no 
export,  but  large  possibilities  exist  for  an  important  indus- 
try. There  are  three  shipping  ports,  Cabedello,  Maceio, 
and  Recife,  three-fourths  of  the  trees  near  the  first  two.  On 
the  plantation  the  nuts  sell  for  $25~$35  per  1000,  according 
to  size,  and  in  cities  at  $42.50.  No  attempt  is  made  to  pro- 
duce copra,  as  the  natives  are  fond  of  the  milk  and  fruit. 
With  New  York  price  $160  a  ton  for  copra  and  $10  freight 
it  is  better  to  sell  the  nuts  at  home,  but  if  business  were 
done  on  a  large  scale,  good  profit  would  result.  Improper 
spacing  injures  production;  of  two  groves,  one  75  trees 
to  the  acre  and  one  close  by,  130  trees,  the  yield  of  the 
first  is  four  times  that  of  the  second.  Labor  is  cheap, 
disease  and  pests  unknown.  The  by-products  are  valuable  ; 
fibre  for  cord  or  rope,  the  husk  for  fuel,  the  milk  for  break- 
fast, and  palm  leaves  for  building  or  for  hats.  To  develop 
2000  acres  of  land  a  capital  of  $30,000  is  estimated  as  neces- 
sary, giving  a  net  return  for  the  first  seven  years  which 
would  average  $31,865  a  year,  105  per  cent  on  the  capital, 
with  gross  receipts  for  the  last  year  of  $300,000.  If  the 
profits  are  half  the  estimate  the  investment  would  seem  a 
good  one. 

Other  Nuts.  The  Brazil  nut  is  an  equally  well  known 
edible,  mostly  exported  from  Para;  in  1914  over  $2,000,000 
worth.  The  trees  are  large,  often  150  feet  high.  Babassii 
nuts  are  exported,  some  thousands  of  tons,  chiefly  from 
Bahia,  yielding  a  high  percentage  of  oil,  similar  to  that 
from  the  coconut.  Also  the  souari  or  butternut  brings  a  good 
price  and  has  commercial  possibilities,  having  a  larger  per- 
centage of  fat  than  other  known  species.  Its  cultivation  is 


418  THE  EAST  COAST 

/• 

believed  to  be  more  profitable  than  that  of  coconuts.    Tagua 

nuts  are  exported  in  small  quantities. 

Cotton  is  an  important  product  likely  to  have  a  large 
increase,  though  a  diminishing  amount  is  exported,  $8,000,000 
worth  in  1914  and  $500,000  in  1916.  This  does  not  indicate 
lessening  production  but  large  increase  in  cotton  milling. 
Cotton  of  long  silky  staple  of  high  merit  here  grows  wild  or 
with  careless  cultivation.  Growing  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
country,  it  is  best  on  the  northeast  promontory  and  along  the 
coast  to  the  Amazon.  There  is  little  culture,  not  yet  ^2  million 
bales,  where  20  might  be  produced.  United  States  cotton 
buyers  in  1916  were  astonished  to  find  here  the  long  silky 
fibre.  One  of  the  best  varieties  is  similar  to  the  Peruvian,  a 
hardy,  prolific  perennial  growing  13  feet  high  and  yielding 
for  at  least  three  years.  One  tree  was  bearing  after  16  years. 
Maranhao  has  raised  this  kind  for  centuries.  It  has  the  high 
percentage  of  38  to  the  boll  and  is  similar  to  that  cultivated 
by  the  Incas.  Under  the  names  Moco,  Serido,  and  Sede  de 
Ceara,  this  cotton  is  grown  in  these  north  States.  Gossipium 
micro  car pum,  related  to  peruvianum,  is  said  to  produce  a 
pound  of  clean  cotton  from  120  bolls.  These  varieties  have 
fuzz  on  the  seeds,  but  four  other  varieties  have  clean  seeds, 
the  most  important,  the  Gossipium  vitifolium  found  wild  in 
Brazil,  still  producing  long  silky  staple.  Sea  Island  and  the 
best  Egyptian  belong  to  this  stock.  These  varieties  can  be 
cultivated  here  without  fear  of  rival  anywhere,  and  offer  a 
fine  field  for  the  investor.  In  the  State  of  Pernambuco  cotton 
production  is  more  important  than  sugar.  Much  is  produced 
in  Sao  Paulo.  Export  growers,  and  good  roads  or  railways 
are  needed  to  stimulate  production. 

Cereals  are  obviously  of  far  less  importance  in  Brazil 
than  in  Argentina,  yet  many  tons  are  produced  and  the  pos- 
sibilities are  large.  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  alone  produces  wheat 
in  quantity,  though  not  enough  for  her  own  needs;  Santa 
Catharina,  Sao  Paulo,  the  hills  of  Rio  and  Minas  are  suitable 
for  cereals,  and  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  a  little  rye  are  seen 


BRAZIL  419 

in  the  south  near  European  colonies.  The  chief  cereal  grown 
is  maize;  in  patches  it  is  found  everywhere,  and  in  enormous 
fields  in  the  centre  of  Brazil.  With  mandioca  it  is  the  food  of 
the  common  people,  in  spite  of  the  large  consumption  of 
flour  in  the  cities. 

Fruits.  The  fine  fruits  of  Brazil  deserve  greater  exploi- 
tation. I  have  eaten  really  delicious  pineapples  in  Rio 
only.  There  may  be  as  good  elsewhere,  there  cannot  be 
better.  The  oranges  of  Bahia  have  an  equal  reputation. 
It  is  from  that  State  that  the  navels  were  introduced  into 
Florida.  If  superior  to  the  California  fruit  as  were  the  old 
Flondas,  it  is  time  they  were  more  extensively  cultivated 
and  exported  to  the  United  States. 

Rice  is  growing  in  importance.  Formerly  imported,  its 
production  has  increased  until  now  there  is  an  export 
balance. 

Beans  are  raised  and  consumed  in  great  quantities; 
recently  some  have  been  exported. 

FORESTRY 

It  is  well  known  that  the  forest  country  of  Brazil  has  an 
enormous  area.  The  entire  rubber  region  is  estimated  by  a 
Brazilian  authority  as  covering  1,000,000  square  miles,  half 
of  which  is  in  Brazil.  Other  forest  regions  of  a  different 
character  are  on  the  highlands  and  at  the  south,  all  together 
covering  il/2  million  square  miles.  The  forests  contain  the 
varieties  that  might  naturally  be  expected  with  others  peculiar 
to  the  country,  medicinal  plants,  trees  with  gums  and  resins, 
woods  hard  and  soft,  but  mainly  hard;  some  ornamental, 
others  useful  as  timber;  plants  supplying  tannin,  quebracho 
and  others;  the  beautiful  Araucanian  (Parana)  pine,  the 
candelabra  tree,  of  which  there  are  800,000,000  in  Parana. 
The  wood  is  said  to  be  20  per  cent  stronger  than  the  pine  of 
Sweden ;  the  trees  are  nearly  200  feet  high,  with  a  diameter  at 
the  base  of  ten  feet.  Other  figures  are  100  feet  tall  and  three 
feet  in  diameter. 


420  THE  EAST  COAST 

The  timber  industry  is  of  slight  development,  but  Parana 
and  Santa  Catharina  afford  much  good  building  material.  The 
Brazil  Company  has  in  the  two  States  over  500,000  acres  with 
5,000,000,000  feet  of  good  standing  timber  and  three  mills. 
One  of  these,  at  Tres  Barros,  located  on  a  railway,  has  a  ca- 
pacity of  40,000,000  feet  a  year,  with  planing  mill,  box  factory, 
etc.  There  is  a  great  market  in  Brazil  and  Argentina.  Among 
unusually  valuable  trees  is  the  peroba,  with  a  trunk  weighing 
30  tons,  worth  $7  a  ton  on  the  spot.  The  imbuya  tree  which 
resembles  mahogany  is  heavier  than  water.  An  infinite  variety 
is  found  with  infinite  uses. 

Rubber  still  has  some  importance,  in  spite  of  the  great 
diminution  of  export  owing  to  the  development  of  the  Ceylon 
plantations.  Once  the  price  was  $3  a  pound ;  in  June,  1921,  15^2 
cents.  Unfortunately  the  industry  in  past  years  was  very 
badly  conducted,  with  short-sighted  policy,  wasteful  methods 
in  tapping  trees,  foolish  importation  at  excessive  cost  of  all 
kinds  of  supplies  including  food,  far  too  high  prices  to  the 
laborers;  partly  in  consequence  of  extortion  and  cruelty,  a 
scarcity  of  labor;  in  addition,  high  export  duties.  The  idea 
prevailed  that  people  could  get  rubber  nowhere  else  and  must 
pay  whatever  price  was  asked.  It  was  a  severe  shock  when 
Ceylon  rubber  came  more  and  more  into  the  market,  and  was 
found  to  be  a  formidable  rival.  Although  not  generally  con- 
sidered equal  to  Para  fina,  the  Ceylon  answers  for  most  pur- 
poses. 

The  Government  is  now  lending  aid  to  the  industry,  en- 
couraging plantations,  and  better  methods  otherwise.  The 
export  tax  at  Para  has  been  slightly  lowered  but  is  now  24^ 
per  cent.  A  Government  investigation,  however,  in  1912-14 
at  a  cost  of  $47,000,000  did  little  besides  paying  fat  salaries 
to  favored  individuals.  The  Ceylon  export  has  recently  been 
300,000  tons  to  Brazil's  37,000.  So  far  synthetic  rubber  with 
the  special  therapeutic  base  has  cost  four  times  the  hevea. 
The  Para  fina  is  of  course  the  hevea  brasiliensis,  which  con- 
stitutes the  larger  part  exported  from  the  Amazon,  80  per 


BRAZIL  421 

cent  of  a  good  workman's  product.  Sernamby  is  a  by-product 
of  scraps  or  careless  work,  though  even  the  better  is  liable 
to  be  contaminated  more  or  less  with  leaves,  nails,  etc.  Caucho 
from  the  castilloa  elastica  is  not  so  good,  and  in  procuring  it 
the  tree  is  usually  destroyed,  as  previously  stated.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  where  some  collectors  are  quite  inde- 
pendent, owning  their  own  homes  on  the  edge  of  the  forest, 
are  white  rubber  trees  producing  fraca  or  weak  rubber;  not 
so  good  as  the  hevea  which  has  the  most  resilience,  and  is 
tough  and  elastic.  For  many  purposes  these  qualities  are 
essential,  hence  the  higher  price.  Red  rubber  coagulates  badly. 

Men  from  the  State  of  Ceara,  especially  in  times  of  drought, 
have  been  glad  to  go  to  the  Amazon  as  rubber  collectors; 
and  half  wild  Indians  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  have  been  employed. 
The  rubber  is  collected  in  the  dry  season,  June  to  November. 
Dr.  Oswaldo  Cruz,  a  famous  Brazilian  physician,  said  of 
some  of  the  Amazon  regions  that  there  were  no  natives,  as 
all  the  children  die;  others  declare  that  the  normal  condition 
of  older  persons  is  to  be  afflicted  with  malaria,  beriberi,  dysen- 
tery, pneumonia.  Still  others  maintain  that  much  of  the  higher 
land  is  fairly  healthful  for  persons  of  careful  habits  who  have 
good  food.  Conditions  are  improving.  American  and  other 
companies  are  organizing  on  a  more  scientific  basis  than  form- 
erly, and  with  humane  plans  which  in  the  long  run  will  prove 
profitable.  Lands  have  been  secured  in  desirable  locations 
where  men  can  live  all  the  year,  raise  their  own  vegetables, 
and  not  be  dependent  for  their  entire  living,  aside  from  fish, 
on  canned  stuff  at  enormous  prices.  To  put  Amazon  rubber 
on  a  better  basis  it  is  necessary  that  the  output  be  cleaner, 
the  expenses  of  the  collector  smaller,  and  his  living  better 
through  local  cultivation  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  which  here 
grow  luxuriantly,  and  with  better  habitations  on  suitable  sites, 
so  attracting  a  better  labor  supply.  A  further  reduction  by 
the  Brazilian  States  of  the  rubber  export  tax,  now  about  24 
per  cent  in  Para,  seems  also  desirable. 

Besides  the  hevea  and  caucho,  two  other  varieties  of  rubber 


422  THE  EAST  COAST 

are  exported,  the  manigoba  and  the  mangabeira,  which  have 
a  place,  like  the  balata  of  the  Guianas  and  Venezuela  and 
the  Guayule  shrub  from  Mexico.  The  first  is  from  tke 
manihot  tree  which  grows  up  to  4000  feet  altitude,  on  a  rocky 
soil  where  there  is  not  too  much  rain;  it  is  good  for  many 
purposes.  The  mangabeira,  mostly  from  Pernambuco,  grows 
on  a  sandy  soil  at  3000-5000  feet,  but  is  a  wet  rubber  not 
highly  valued. 

The  Ceylon  rubber  trees,  the  seeds  of  which  were  taken 
from  the  Amazon  and  germinated  in  Kew  Gardens,  first  blos- 
somed in  1881.  The  seeds  were  used  to  plant  more  trees.  In 
1900  four  tons  of  rubber  came  from  the  East,  in  1910,  800 
tons;  the  output  in  1916  was  about  150,000  tons.  One  million, 
three  hundred  thousand  acres  are  now  producing  in  Ceylon, 
India,  Borneo^  and  elsewhere,  a  monument  to  British  enter- 
prise. 

Herva  Matte.  A  very  important  export,  rather  forestal 
than  agricultural  is  called  in  Portuguese  herva  matte,  the 
yerba  mate  of  Spanish.  Parana  is  its  special  home  where  it 
grows  wild  in  the  forests,  straying  over  into  the  neighboring 
States  of  Matto  Grosso,  Sao  Paulo,  Santa  Catharina,  and 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  being  native  as  we  have  seen  to 
Paraguay,  and  to  Misiones  in  Argentina.  The  trees  or  shrubs 
often  grow  in  sections  with  the  tall  Parana  pines,  the  tree 
with  the  candelabra  top,  which  is  not  only  an  ornament  to 
the  landscape  but  supplies  good  lumber,  and  pine  kernels  as 
large  as  chestnuts.  These  when  boiled  make  a  nutritious 
food,  much  relished  by  the  Italians.  The  chief  export  of 
matte  is  through  the  city  of  Paranagua,  after  preparation  in 
the  mills  of  the  region.  In  1915,  75,8oo  tons  were  exported, 
largely  to  Argentina,  some  also  to  Europe;  40,000  tons  is  an 
average  amount.  It  is  much  used  by  the  residents  of  Parana, 
but  in  most  of  Brazil  coffee  has  the  preference. 

Fibres.  Besides  cotton  Brazil  produces  fibres  of  excel- 
lence from  a  variety  of  plants.  A  wonderful  article  but  little 
known  to  the  general  public  is  the  remarkable  paina,  called 


BRAZIL  423 

in  Europe  kapok,  34  times  as  light  as  water,  14  times,  as 
cork.  Chiefly  produced  in  the  Orient,  it  is  obviously  excellent 
for  life  preservers,  also  for  mattresses,  pillows,  and  for  what- 
ever needs  to  be  light,  warm,  elastic,  and  impermeable.  The 
best  fibre,  best  packed,  comes  from  Java,  inferior  grades  from 
India  and  Africa.  Introduced  into  Venezuela,  it  was  so  packed 
with  stones  and  refuse  that  it  was  rejected  when  sent  to 
Europe,  although  the  article  was  of  fine  quality.  Careless 
exporters  of  all  articles  should  take  warning.  Other  good 
fibres  of  Brazil  are  aramin,  from  which  coffee  bags  are  made ; 
pita,  from  which  the  Amazon  Indians  make  hammocks  woven 
with  much  art,  and  sometimes  with  feathers  interspersed  along 
the  edge.  Palms  and  aloes  supply  other  fibres,  some  equal, 
they  say,  to  the  famous  henequen  (sisal)  of  Yucatan.  Banana 
fibre  is  used  by  north  lace  makers  for  a  curious  stiff  shiny 
lace,  some  quite  beautiful,  fine  and  intricate,  and  some  with 
a  darned-in  pattern  of  heavier  silk  thread,  on  a  filmy  back- 
ground. 

Carnaiiba  Wax,  which  forms  an  under  coating  of  the 
leaves  of  the  carnauba  palm,  is  not  unlike  beeswax.  Nearly 
600  tons  were  exported  in  1915  valued  at  $2,400,000.  The 
trees  grow  in  the  north  States,  especially  in  Rio  Grande  do 
Norte,  where  there  are  15,000,000  trees,  and  in  Ceara.  Large 
amounts  of  the  product  are  used  locally.  The  wax  is  of 
excellent  quality,  melting  at  a  low  temperature  and  burning 
with  a  bright  light.  Mixed  with  a  little  beeswax  and  10  per 
cent  fat,  it  is  easily  worked  and  makes  candles  of  high  quality. 
It  is  much  used  for  shoe  blacking. 


CHAPTER  L 
BRAZIL:  OTHER  INDUSTRIES 

CATTLE  INDUSTRY 

A  leading  industry  of  Brazil  which,  it  has  been  said,  may 
even  in  Sao  Paulo  supersede  in  importance  that  of  coffee  is 
live  stock.  Two  packing  houses  now  slaughter  300,000  cattle 
per  year,  one  Brazilian,  at  Barretos,  the  other  an  American, 
the  Continental  Products,  at  Osasco  near  Sao  Paulo,  export- 
ing chiefly  to  France  and  Italy.  Another  American  Company 
has  at  Sao  Paulo  a  plant  that  will  handle  daily  1500  head  of 
cattle,  looo  hogs,  and  2500  sheep.  In  tributary  territory, 
which  would  include  parts  of  Matto  Grosso  and  Minas,  2,500,- 
ooo  cattle  are  estimated.  It  is  said  that  the  best  breeding 
ground  is  Matto  Grosso,  where  the  cattle  run  wild  as  once  in 
Texas,  though  each  rancher  has  a  certain  range  and  his  cattle 
are  branded.  The  Brazil  Land  and  Cattle  Company  procured 
8,000,000  acres  in  Matto  Grosso,  Parana,  and  Minas,  mostly 
well  watered  and  with  good  grazing,  except  in  Matto  Grosso. 
Much  fencing  was  done  and  buildings  were  erected.  Recent 
increase  in  prices  has  improved  prospects.  This  property  is 
now  owned  by  the  Continental  Products  Company,  in  which 
the  Wilson  packers  are  interested. 

Other  vast  lands  are  available.  From  the  ranges  of  Matto 
Grosso  the  cattle  are  driven  across  to  fattening  pastures  of 
southwest  Minas  and  northwest  Sao  Paulo  where  the  land 
has  been  planted  to  grass,  though  it  is  said  that  a  native  grass, 
caipim  gordura,  grows  there  all  the  year  round.  Argentina's 
alfalfa  lands  make  the  cost  of  fattening  an  animal  six  months 
$7- 50,  while  with  caipim  gordura  in  Brazil  $1.33  covers  the 

424 


BRAZIL  425 

expense.  Some  Brazil  grasses  are  of  the  highest  class  while 
others  are  good  only  for  goats.  On  the  Araguaya  River  the 
grass  is  16-17  ^eet  high.  The  Jaragua  is  over  3  feet.  In 
Amazonas  and  Para  cattle  are  said  to  flourish  but  not  goats 
or  pigs.  Rio  Grande  near  the  Uruguay  line  has  fine  grazing 
lands ;  those  in  Minas  and  Sao  Paulo  at  an  elevation  of  1200- 
1400  feet  where  animals  never  need  shelter  are  excellent. 

Before  the  packing  houses  were  started  jerked  beef  only 
was  marketed  from  the  herds,  hence,  as  thin  cattle  were  pre- 
ferred for  that  purpose,  there  was  no  object  in  improving 
the  grade.  Now  there  is  systematic  progress.  Breeding  farms 
are  operated,  fine  stock  has  been  imported,  and  in  time  high 
grade  meat,  perhaps  equal  to  the  Argentine,  will  be  marketed. 
Twelve  thousand  tons  were  sent  to  Europe  and  the  United 
States  in  six  months  in  1916,  though  the  first  experimental 
il/2  tons  was  sent  in  November,  1914.  At  the  School  of  Agri- 
culture, Piracicaba,  Sao  Paulo,  are  good  imported  bulls,  and 
one  of  native  type,  the  Caracu,  with  pale  buff  hide,  fitted  to 
be  the  base  of  standardized  herds.  It  seems  that  in  some 
sections,  notably  Matto  Grosso,  a  cross  with  the  Indian 
zebu,  which  has  a  hump,  and  its  descendants,  is  best  quali- 
fied to  resist  the  climate  and  the  insect  pests  of  that  region; 
but  in  the  pastures  of  Parana  and  Rio  Grande,  Herefords, 
Durhams,  Jerseys,  etc.,  will  flourish.  The  zebu  is  of  large 
size  and  its  skin  is  excellent  leather,  but  packers  say  the 
hump  does  not  pack  well,  and  the  shoulder  is  thin.  Plants 
now  or  soon  to  be  in  operation  south  of  Sao  Paulo  are  three : 
in  Rio  Grande,  one  of  Swift,  one  at  Pelotas,  Brazilian,  and 
one  at  Sant'  Anna  of  Armour.  The  President  of  Parana 
has  been  extending  high  roads  towards  Guarapuava  to  tap 
the  State  of  Matto  Grosso,  and  a  large  drove  of  cattle  has 
come  down.  He  desires  to  have  an  American  packing  house 
established  in  the  State  and  will  arrange  with  a  suitable 
company  to  make  no  advance  on  the  export  tax  for  15 
years.  Paranagua,  a  port  which  we  have  already  noted, 
is  well  served  by  the  Brazilian  Lloyd  Line  and  the  Punch- 


426  THE  EAST  COAST 

Edye  from  New  York.  Similar  concessions  are  offered  in 
Santa  Catharina,  which  State  has  lower  export  duties;  and 
by  the  Governor  of  Rio  Grande,  who  would  exempt  from 
all  export  taxes  any  foreign  company;  though  a  tax  of 
10  milreis,  $3.33,  is  imposed  for  every  cow  slaughtered,  to 
protect  the  herds  from  decimation.  If  all  the  herds  number 
30,000,000,  2,500,000  or  more  might  be  slaughtered  yearly 
without  diminution.  Cattle  formerly  were  killed  for  their 
hides  only,  and  the  export  of  these  is  still  important;  37,000 
tons  exported  in  1915  were  valued  at  $13,000,000. 

Sheep  raising  seems  inappropriate  for  a  tropical  climate, 
but  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  development  is  possible,  also  on 
the  highlands  of  Sao  Paulo,  Minas,  and  Matto  Grosso. 
Experiments  with  Romney  Marsh  have  been  successful  for 
both  wool  and  meat.  Now  there  are  11,000,000  sheep, 
7,000,000  goats,  18,000,000  hogs,  6,000,000  horses,  and 
3,000,000  mules  and  donkeys  in  the  country. 

MANUFACTURES 

While  Brazil  may  not  be  called  a  manufacturing  country, 
she  had  over  26,000  such  plants  in  1916;  and  her  statesmen 
are  eager  to  increase  these  industries,  for  which  her  immense 
water  power  gives  her  unusual  advantages.  The  largest 
concern  in  this  field  has  a  capital  of  $8,000,000  and  an 
annual  output  worth  $4,500,000;  it  employs  2800  hands  mak- 
ing sacking,  yarn,  rope,  thread,  etc.,  this  in  Sao  Paulo.  In 
the  textile  field,  the  cotton  mills  naturally  lead  with  over 
200  mills  and  an  investment  of  $80,000,000.  They  exist  in 
various  States,  employing  80,000  persons;  one  in  Pernam- 
buco  near  the  city  of  Olinda  is  a  sample.  The  estate  of 
45  square  miles  of  pasture  and  woodland  borders  on  the 
sea,  the  shore  fringed  with  coconut  trees.  Machinery  and 
some  technical  workers  were  brought  from  England.  All 
the  processes  of  making  fine  cloth  are  there  followed;  they 
spin,  dye,  weave,  color,  and  print.  Native  dyes  are  used  in 


BRAZIL  427 

\ 
part.    Of  3500  hands  employed  70  per  cent  are  women  and 

children.  Over  $35,000  a  month  are  paid  in  wages.  Dwell- 
ings are  rented  at  low  prices  or  owned  by  employes;  schools, 
hospital,  and  dispensary  are  free.  A  dairy  and  a  stock  farm 
belong  to  the  estate,  brick  factories,  a  bakery,  etc.  A  lumber 
yard  is  important.  One  thousand  tons  of  coal  a  month  are 
usually  consumed,  but  in  war  time  wood  was  used.  The 
cotton  is  bought,  $200,000  a  month,  and  as  much  a  year  is 
spent  for  chemicals,  drugs,  etc.  From  960  looms  1,500,000 
metres  of  cloth  22-26  inches  wide  are  produced  a  month, 
from  blue  denim  to  fine  flowered  fabrics;  the  products  are 
sold  in  80  stores  owned  by  the  Company  in  various  States. 
Brazil  has  II  flour  mills  of  commercial  importance,  located 
in  the  States  of  Rio,  Sao  Paulo,  Parana,  and  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul,  at  one  time  having  no  tax  on  wheat,  but  ten  cents  a 
kilo  on  flour,  by  means  of  which  the  infant  industry  was 
started.  In  1915,  800,000  barrels  of  flour  were  imported 
from  the  United  States  and  600,000  from  Argentina,  a  little 
from  Uruguay;  at  the  same  time  enough  wheat  was  im- 
ported and  milled  to  make  2,750,000  barrels,  evidence  of 
the  work  of  the  mills.  For  metal  working  there  are  134 
shops  for  imported  iron.  Factories  exist  of  almost  every 
kind.  Leather  goods  are  produced  especially  shoes  for 
which  there  are  many  factories;  hats,  clothing  and  a  variety 
of  ordinary  articles,  such  as  soap,  hosiery,  brooms,  paper, 
wagons,  etc.!  Brazil  workmen  are  skilful  and  the  industries 
are  certain  to  increase. 

MINING 

The  mining  industry  of  Brazil,  if  not  precisely  in  embryo, 
for  it  has  been  in  a  very  flourishing  condition,  is  now  in  a 
state  of  prospect;  on  the  verge  of  a  great  development 
rather  than  of  active  operation,  except  for  a  few  varieties  of 
metals.  At  the  moment  there  is  little  working  except  in 
gold,  diamonds,  monazite,  manganese,  and  coal. 


428  THE  EAST  COAST 

Manganese  has  recently  been  the  chief  mineral  exported 
on  account  of  war  necessities,  245,000  tons  valued  at  7 
million  dollars,  in  the  first  half  of  1917,  in  contrast  to  85,000 
tons  in  the  same  part  of  1914.  The  mines  are  in  Minas, 
Matto  Grosso,  Bahia,  and  elsewhere,  those  in  Minas  being 
accessible  to  the  port  of  Rio.  In  Matto  Grosso,  18  miles 
from  Corumba,  there  is  a  deposit  called  the  Urucum,  esti- 
mated at  30,000,000  tons  of  undeveloped  ore;  one,  the 
Quelez,  in  Minas  of  5,000,000,  30  miles  from  Rio,  and 
others.  The  ore  averages  over  50  per  cent  of  metallic 
manganese,  with  a  little  iron  silicate  and  phosphorus. 
Americans  are  interested  in  the  works  as  the  metal  is  valu- 
able in  the  iron  and  steel  industry.  With  better  transporta- 
tion facilities  for  these  and  other  deposits,  a  good  future  is 
certain. 

Gold  mining  was  naturally  the  first  to  be  developed. 
Minas  has  been  the  chief  producer.  Of  Minas  Geraes  the 
writer  Diaz  said,  "In  this  State  what  does  not  hide  gold 
contains  iron;  what  does  not  contain  coal  spreads  dia- 
monds." After  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1693,  80,000  men 
toiled  for  a  century  at  placer  mining  for  the  King  of  Por- 
tugal. About  $1,000,000,000  has  been  taken  out.  The  Morro 
Velho,  said  to  be  the  oldest  producing  mine  in  the  world,  is 
now  with  the  Ouro  Preto  worked  by  British  Companies. 
The  first  is  being  worked  at  the  depth  of  a  mile  with  no  sign 
of  exhaustion.  The  gross  receipts  for  the  year  ending 
February  28,  1917,  were  over  $4,000,000,  the  profits  $750,000, 
from  a  tonnage  crushed  of  187,400.  The  Ouro  Preto  Com- 
pany operates  the  Passagem  Mine  five  miles  from  the  former 
capital  of  that  name,  being  the  first  to  use  a  stamp  mill  in 
1819.  The  average  thickness  of  the  lode  was  ten  feet,  now 
about  eight.  Gold  properties  exist  in  many  States,  the  most 
important  around  three  mountain  chains,  the  Mantiqueira 
and  Espinhago,  which  cross  Minas  and  Bahia,  running  into 
Pernambuco;  the  range  between  Minas  and  Bahia,  and 
Goyaz,  continuing  into  Piauhy  and  Ceara,  west  of  the  Sao 


BRAZIL  429 

Francisco  River;  the  third  east  of  the  Paraguay  and 
Araguaya  Rivers.  Those  most  worked  are  in  the  Espinhaco 
Range  in  Minas  and  Bahia.  Dredging  has  been  carried  on 
with  varying  success,  but  some  of  the  companies  have  been 
overcapitalized.  An  American  Company  has  recently  acquired 
some  old  concessions  of  land  in  Goyaz,  rich  in  gold  and 
diamonds,  where  extensive  operations  are  expected  shortly. 

Diamonds.  As  for  diamonds,  since  the  first  stone  was 
discovered  in  1721,  many  precious  gems  have  been  produced. 
During  40  years  in  that  century  $17,500,000  worth  were 
exported.  The  city,  Diamantina,  500  miles  from  Rio,  is 
the  centre  of  one  of  the  most  important  fields.  Gems  are 
found  in  pot-holes,  one  of  which  contained  10  pounds  of 
diamonds  and  28  of  gold.  Others  are  in  clay  deposits  in 
rocks  of  sandstone  and  schist.  In  the  River  Bagagem  near 
the  border  of  Sao  Paulo,  250  miles  from  Diamantina,  three 
great  diamonds  have  been  found:  the  Estrella  do  Sul,  in 
1853,  weighing  254  carats  uncut,  was  sold  to  the  Gaekwar 
of  Baroda  for  $400,000,  the  others  weighing  117  and  175 
carats.  Other  fields  are  in  Parana,  Bahia,  Goyaz,  Matto 
Grosso,  and  Sao  Paulo,  in  Goyaz  on  the  Gargas  River,  tribu- 
tary to  the  Araguaya.  Apparently  most  of  the  stones  are 
now  smuggled.  They  are  said  to  be  finer  than  the  Cape 
diamonds  and  also  to  be  sold  for  them.  Black  diamonds 
are  found,  of  great  value  in  the  arts,  and  many  precious 
and  semi-precious  stones,  such  as  amethysts,  tourmaline, 
topaz,  etc.,  in  various  places. 

Copper  exists  in  several  States,  but  production  is  slight. 
A  mass  weighing  over  2600  pounds  was  discovered  years 
ago  near  the  city  of  Bahia,  and  there  are  six  well  known 
districts  in  the  State.  In  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  an  extensive 
property  was  opened  which  showed  6.5  per  cent  copper 
and  30  grams  gold  per  ton.  Minas  will  probably  rank 
next  to  these  States.  Promising  quantities  are  near  Campos 
in  Rio  de  Janeiro;  there  are  also  ores  in  Goyaz,  Parana, 
Matto  Grosso,  Parahyba,  Ceara,  Rio  Grande  do  Norte  and 


430  THE  EAST  COAST 

Maranhao;  some  are  hardly  accessible.  One  of  those  in 
Bahia  covers  nearly  15,000  acres,  about  30  miles  from  the 
railway.  Belgians  and  Dutch  have  operated  at  Camaquam, 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 

Iron  in  actual  mountains  occurs  in  Minas,  12  billion 
tons  of  the  highest  grade  in  52  outcroppings.  Deposits 
have  been  acquired  by  American,  British,  German,  and 
French  interests.  The  manager  of  a  British  company  which 
owned  90,000  acres  said,  "One  could  travel  23  miles  one 
way  and  16  another  on  outcrops  of  ore,  canga,  or  rubble." 
In  one  deposit  30,000,000  tons  are  in  sight,  60  per  cent 
pure. 

American  interests,  the  Itabira  Company,  have  secured 
deposits  which  include  the  celebrated  iron  mountain  of 
Itabira  do  Matto  Dentro  in  the  east  near  the  head  of  the 
Doce  River.  The  hematite  iron  district  is  reached  from 
Rio  by  the  Central  and  the  Leopoldina  Railways;  but  this 
deposit  will  be  tapped  by  a  prolongation  of  the  Victoria- 
Minas  Railway,  now  running  along  a  part  of  the  Doce 
River.  Also  a  branch  will  lead  to  a  terminal  40  miles  north 
of  Victoria,  Santa  Cruz,  a  small  port  which  will  be 
developed  and  equipped  with  special  loading  machinery. 
Here  will  be  erected  a  steel  plant  with  an  annual  capacity 
of  150,000  tons  of  steel  products,  pig-iron,  steel  plates,  rails, 
etc.  The  iron,  326  miles  from  this  port,  runs  69  per  cent 
pure;  some  in  the  United  States  runs  52  per  cent.  It  will 
be  several  years  before  manufacture  can  begin.  Coal  will 
be  imported. 

Development  of  iron  properties  has  been  retarded  by 
lack  of  transportation  and  fuel.  Wagon  roads  are  unknown. 
The  altitude  is  2000-4000  feet  and  the  climate  good.  The 
coal  is  hardly  good  enough  or  in  sufficiently  large  supply. 
Oil  development  is  uncertain.  As  there  is  water  power 
the  use  of  electricity  may  be  arranged. 

Near  Ipanema,  Sao  Paulo,  iron  is  found.  A  large  de- 
posit has  been  located  in  Parana  three  miles  from  the  port 


BRAZIL  431 

of  Antonina.  Other  deposits  in  the  two  States  south  give 
good  promise.  So  far  charcoal  has  been  used  for  a  little 
smelting. 

Coal  mining  has  been  carried  on  for  a  long  time  in  a 
small  and  primitive  way,  but  most  of  the  coal  used  has  been 
imported.  The  principal  deposits  found  are  in  Santa 
Catharina  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  others  are  in  Parana 
and  Pernambuco.  In  Parana  American  interests  have  made 
extensive  purchases  and  expect  to  develop  the  property  at 
once.  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  has  been  estimated  to  have  800,- 
000,000  tons  and  to  be  able  to  supply  1,000,000  a  year. 

In  Santa  Catharina  the  veins  are  about  ten  feet  thick; 
some  in  Rio  Grande  are  4—10  feet,  some  13.  The  property 
at  Xarquedas,  operated  for  some  years,  produces  20,000 
tons  per  annum.  With  greater  activity,  in  March  1918, 
650  tons  were  produced  daily  from  two  shafts,  and  1000 
or  more  was  expected  by  the  addition  of  a  third.,  With 
high  volatile  matter,  good  gas  and  salable  coke  are  procured 
for  Pelotas.  Coal  is  found  in  several  river  valleys  in  Santa 
Catharina.  State  surveys  are  being  made,  and  with  improve- 
ment in  transport  by  land  and  water  a  great  industry  may 
be  developed  of  enormous  value  in  promoting  manufactures. 
Railway  construction  has  been  authorized  by  the  President 
to  aid  coal  companies  in  work,  and  other  concessions  have 
been  made.  The  briquettes  from  Santa  Catharina  coal 
show  hardly  less  caloric  value  than  those  of  the  Welsh 
patent  fuel.  Much  is  used  by  the  Lloyd  Brasileiro  and  other 
steamship  lines  including  the  Japanese;  by  railways,  mills, 
etc.  A  little  is  exported  to  Argentina  and  Uruguay.  The 
Rio  Grande  Railway  is  or  was  burning  coal  mixed  with 
wood  on  its  locomotives.  The  best  coal  is  42  per  cent  com- 
bustible, and  when  pulverized  is  equal  to  any  other. 
Bituminous  schist  sold  at  $12.50  a  ton  was  used  for  gas 
in  Sao  Paulo  during  the  War.  There  are  great  seams 
10-12  feet  thick  in  Sao  Paulo  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  Lignite 


432  THE  EAST  COAST 

occurs  in  Para,  Amazonas,  and  Minas,  enormous  peat  beds 
in  various  places. 

Monazite  sands  exist  on  the  Brazilian  coast,  probably 
in  larger  quantities  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  In 
1910  Germany  imported  $1,000,000  worth.  The  thorium  in 
the  sands,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  mantles,  is  ex- 
tracted in  Brazilian  factories  before  exportation.  Two  per 
cent  of  thorium  is  in  the  sand,  sometimes  nearly  6  per  cent. 
It  is  found  on  the  coast  north  of  Rio  and  on  some  river  banks 
in  Rio,  Espirito  Santo,  Bahia,  and  Minas. 

Graphite  exists  in  several  States,  especially  Minas  and 
Bahia  in  rather  inaccessible  locations,  but  one  deposit  in 
Rio  is  worked,  for  a  pencil  factory  in  the  city  of  Rio ;  others 
in  a  small  way  for  local  use. 

Other  Minerals.  Platinum  is  found  in  gold  bearing  quartz 
and  in  river  alluvium  in  Pernambuco,  Minas,  and  Parahyba; 
nickel  in  Minas,  Santa  Catharina,  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul; 
salt  in  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  Rio,  and  Minas,  worked  in  the 
last  two;  much  is  imported.  Other  minerals  found  in 
various  localities  are  asbestos,  antimony  and  tin,  bismuth, 
barium,  cinnabar,  emery,  kaolin;  marble,  white,  rose,  onyx, 
and  green;  mica,  molybdenite,  saltpetre,  silver  and  lead, 
soapstone  and  talc,  and  wolfram.  Among  the  stones 
garnets,  opals,  pearls,  rubies,  sapphires,  emeralds,  topaz, 
and  tourmalines  are  found  in  more  or  less  profusion  as  well 
as  rock  crystal,  useful  to  opticians.  Minas  contains  almost 
every  variety  of  ore  and  gem,  which  with  its  good  climate 
and  fertile  soil  have  made  it  the  best  populated  State,  though 
without  a  large  city. 

Petroleum  has  been  discovered  in  a  number  of  States, 
among  them  Sao  Paulo,  Minas,  Alagoas,  Pernambuco, 
Bahia,  and  Sergipe;  some  of  excellent  quality  in  Bahia;  but 
whether  in  quantities  for  large  exploitation  is  uncertain 
until  further  investigation  and  work  are  carried  on.  Some 
geologists  believe  that  prospects  are  highly  favorable.  Oil 
of  fine  quality  is  recently  reported  at  Piracicaba,  Sao  Paulo, 


BRAZIL  433 

but  as  the  petroleum  is  generally  in  schist  rock  its  extrac- 
tion would  be  expensive.  Recent  advices  state  that  Brazil 
has  35  oil  fields  in  four  States  with  an  area  of  10,000  square 
miles;  in  the  entire  country  75,000  square  miles  with  an 
estimated  producing  capacity  within  ten  years  of  500  to  600 
million  barrels. 

INVESTMENTS 

In  view  of  the  varied  resources  of  Brazil,  to  enumerate 
the  possibilities  for  investors  would  be  difficult.  There  is 
hardly  a  line  of  industry  which  cannot  there  be  carried  on 
successfully.  That  of  coffee  growing  is  so  well  developed 
as  to  be  somewhat  overcrowded,  but  in  almost  any  other 
line  there  is  a  field  for  the  investor.  Whether  it  be  mining 
of  gold  or  diamonds,  of  coal,  iron,  or  manganese,  be  it  agri- 
culture, stock  raising,  the  lumber  industry,  or  manufactur- 
ing, the  harnessing  of  the  waterfalls  to  produce  hydro- 
electric power,  the  construction  of  public  works,  the  field 
for  the  capitalist,  large  or  small,  is  of  infinite  variety  and 
excellent  promise.  The  present  Government  is  planning 
a  broad  and  active  development  of  the  electric  power  avail- 
able from  its  great  and  numerous  water-falls. 


CHAPTER  LI 
SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

As  to  many  it  may  seem  presumptuous  that  one  with 
no  practical  experience  should  venture  to  discuss  foreign 
trade,  I  beg  with  an  apology  for  my  temerity  to  make  a 
slight  explanation. 

On  my  six  trips  to  South  America  (1903-1916)  I  saw 
and  heard  so  much  of  the  shortcomings  of  my  countrymen 
there,  and  meanwhile  perceived  such  ignorance  at  home 
that  as  early  as  1907  I  wrote  an  article  on  "Our  Commercial 
Relations  with  South  America,"  published  in  the  Van 
Norden  Magazine,  wherein  I  set  forth  many  points  which 
prominent  men  of  affairs  have  repeatedly  urged  upon  the 
attention  of  their  fellows,  even  up  to  the  eighth  Annual 
Trade  Convention  at  Cleveland,  May,  1921. 

My  personal  observation  being  supplemented  by  exten- 
sive reading,  I  venture  to  hope  that  my  remarks  under  this 
heading  may  be  charitably  viewed  by  those  who  are  wiser 
than  I,  and  prove  of  some  slight  service  to  those  whose 
acquaintance  with  South  American  affairs  is  more  limited. 

In  proportion  to  our  wealth  and  our  domestic  activities 
our  export  trade  before  the  Great  War  was  indeed  small 
in  comparison  to  that  of  other  nationalities.  Slight  interest 
was  taken  in  outside  matters  of  any  kind,  even  our  publicists 
giving  little  heed  to  foreign  affairs.  However,  prior  to 
1914  there  had  been  a  slowly  growing  interest  and  a  gradual 
increase  in  our  export  trade,  which  from  1915  to  1920 
showed  a  more  rapid  extension.  In  1915  our  exports 
amounted  to  $3,500,000,000,  in  1920  to  $8,228,000,000;  to 

434 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  435 

South  America  in  round  numbers,  in  1915,  $144,000,000,  in 
1920,  $624,000,000,  in  1921,  $273,000,000. 

As  to  the  past  and  future  of  this  matter,  with  especial 
reference  to  South  America,  two  widely  divergent  opinions 
prevail ;  one,  that  we  have  accomplished  wonders,  and  that 
our  trade  with  that  continent  will  be  permanent  and,  with 
improvement  in  exchange  and  other  conditions,  increasing; 
the  other,  that  we  have  not  done  so  well  as  we  might  and 
ought;  and  that  owing  to  our  indifference,  inefficiency, 
ignorance,  and  bumptiousness,  we  shall  be  unable  to  retain 
anything  like  the  proportion  of  trade  which  we  have  en- 
joyed or  so  much  of  it  as  might  seem  our  reasonable  share. 
With  some  ground  for  each  opinion,  the  truth  as  usual 
lying  between,  there  is  a  possibility  of  either  result  depend- 
ing upon  a  variety  of  circumstances.  The  first  is  whether 
some  of  us  acquire  a  willingness  to  learn,  or  persist  in 
certain  mistaken  notions  and  practices.  Well  merited 
criticism  of  the  methods  of  some  exporters  and  salesmen  is 
far  from  applying  to  all.  The  "S"  of  a  well  known  concern 
is  as  familiar  in  South  America  as  in  North.  Other  great 
corporations  are  famous  the  world  over.  Their  success  in 
foreign  sales  has  meant  the  employment  of  many  men 
abroad  and  of  a  large  number  at  home,  with  the  home  busi- 
ness supplemented  and  steadied  by  the  foreign.  In  addition 
to  the  extensive  pre-war  export  of  some  large  companies, 
many  small  ones,  whose  names  are  less  familiar,  have  long 
sent  their  wares  to  foreign  lands. 

A  matter  of  prime  importance  is  that  the  entire  nation 
and  people  become  convinced  of  the  value,  the  necessity 
even,  of  our  maintaining  a  large  export  and  import  trade, 
for  we  cannot  have  one  without  the  other.  The  provincial- 
ism of  our  thought  and  education,  which  have  a  reciprocal 
influence,  must  be  laid  aside.  Congressmen  should  be  able 
to  feel  that  their  reelection  will  depend  upon  their  ability 
to  grasp  the  problems  confronting  the  whole  nation,  prob- 
lems of  labor,  transportation,  commerce,  finance,  and  world 


436  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

interests,  rather  than  upon  their  catering  to  a  special  class 
or  securing  a  sectional  advantage.  It  would  be  well  if  they 
were  high-minded  enough  to  act  for  the  country's  best 
interests  regardless  of  their  future  fate.  To  demand  ability 
and  statesmanship  of  their  representatives  in  these  crucial 
times  is  the  privilege  and  duty  of  the  people. 

As  a  nation  we  have  prospered  because  of  the  richness 
of  our  natural  resources  and  the  enormous  extent  of  our 
agricultural  lands.  The  latter  being  now  for  the  most  part 
occupied,  with  increasing  population  our  welfare  will  depend 
more  largely  upon  the  development  of  our  manufacturing  in- 
dustries and  of  our  export  trade.  That  the  prosperity  of  our 
manufacturing  towns  and  seaports  will  be  reflected  in  our  agri- 
cultural districts  and  will  benefit  the  entire  nation  should  be 
self-evident.  Supported  by  the  people  the  Government  will  act 
in  accordance  with  its  best  judgment.  In  any  case,  every 
one  should  feel  that  it  shows  a  shameful  lack  of  a  sense  of 
duty  and  of  patriotism  to  place  one's  personal  fortune  above 
the  nation's  welfare  in  peace  no  less  than  in  war. 

For  success  in  foreign  trade  as  well  as  for  safety  at 
home  our  Government  must  and  no  doubt  will  see  that 
production  is  not  stifled  for  any  reason,  that  our  transpor- 
tation on  land  and  sea,  and  communication  by  wire  is  un- 
hampered by  strikes  or  otherwise.  If  need  arises,  previous 
restrictive  measures  should  be  removed  and  suitable  aid 
granted.  With  abundance  of  shipping  which  we  formerly 
lacked,  equality  with  European  freight  rates  must  be  main- 
tained or  competition  will  be  impossible.  The  establishing 
by  our  banks  of  needed  branches,  fortunately  made  prac- 
ticable, has  been  accomplished.  The  important  question 
of  trademarks  and  patents  may  require  further  Govern- 
mental consideration  and  diplomatic  action,  though  some 
international  agreements  have  already  been  made.  In  cer- 
tain countries  the  laws  have  been  unfair,  prejudicial  to  the 
interests  of  honest  manufacturers  and  favoring  the  unscru- 
pulous; some  of  whom  have  taken  advantage  of  the  situa- 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  437 

tion  to  the  embarrassment  of  legitimate  American  business. 
Trademarks  have  been  practically  stolen,  through  previous 
registration  by  foreigners  without  title  to  use  them.  We 
must  remember  that  the  same  thing  has  been  done  by 
Americans  in  the  United  States,  who  have  registered  here 
trademarks  owned  in  Europe. 

Of  immense  service  would  be  a  few  free  ports  where 
raw  material  could  enter,  and  without  paying  duty  be  ex- 
ported either  as  entered  or  after  being  manufactured. 
Foreign  countries  have  fostered  commerce  in  this  way  and 
by  allowing  favorable  freight  rates  through  subsidies  and 
otherwise.  Competition  under  Government  ownership  has 
produced  an  enormous  deficit.  While  better  results  may  be 
expected  under  private  ownership,  our  shipping  will  be  at 
a  disadvantage  from  difficulties  imposed  by  the  Seamen's 
Bill.  It  is  said  that  American  shippers  may  be  able  to  pay 
higher  wages  than  European  if  relieved  of  the  necessity 
of  employing  larger  crews  and  superfluous  engineers.  The 
Bureaus  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  now  perform  very 
valuable  service:  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com- 
merce, the  Bureau  of  Standards;  also  the  Bureau  of  Mar- 
kets of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  A  consistent  foreign 
policy,  undoubtedly  to  be  formulated  and  pursued  by  our 
able  Secretaries  of  State  and  Commerce,  will  be  of  great 
service  in  relation  to  foreign  trade  and  for  our  general 
prosperity. 

To  the  intelligent  sympathy  of  the  country  at  large  and 
the  cooperation  of  the  Government  must  be  added  the  eager 
purpose  of  the  manufacturer,  and  the  interest  of  young 
men  who  will  make  of  export  trade  their  chosen  field  of 
labor.  The  manufacturer  who  contemplates  entering  this 
broader  field  or  who,  through  peculiar  war  conditions,  has 
been  brought  into  it  without  preliminary  investigation, 
should  recognize  the  fact  that  careful  intensive  study  is  a 
prerequisite  for  successful  permanent  trade,  a  method  which 


438  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

has  been  followed  by  many  Europeans  and  by  some  Ameri- 
cans with  excellent  results. 

The  book  here  presented  it  is  hoped  will  furnish  a  useful 
groundwork  of  information  on  South  America,  to  be  sup- 
plemented by  further  study  of  details  appropriate  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  prospective  exports  and  to  any  special  condi- 
tions. In  these  countries  generally,  we  have  observed  a 
great  diversity  in  the  population  and  disparity  in  their  con- 
dition. One  may  hope  that  the  latter  will  be  diminished 
by  advance  in  wages  and  by  the  education  of  the  Indians, 
by  means  of  which  their  producing  and  their  purchasing 
power  may  be  increased;  but  for  a  long  time  two  broad 
classes  must  be  distinguished  and  catered  to:  the  cultured 
and  literate,  and  the  poor  and  illiterate  laborers,  especially 
the  Indians  of  the  North  and  West  Coasts.  It  is  evident 
that  the  requirements  of  a  cultivated  society  where  the 
customs  and  dress  are  European  in  character,  or  of  a  homo- 
geneous middle-class  population,  would  be  quite  different 
from  those  of  Indians  who  sleep  on  the  floor,  a  whole  family 
in  one  room.  A  personal  acquaintance  with  the  character 
of  the  people,  their  manner  of  life,  and  their  methods  of 
business  is  extremely  desirable.  If  the  head  of  a  manufac- 
turing industry  is  able  himself  to  make  "The  South  Ameri- 
can Tour"  even  in  a  hasty  manner,  it  will  be  to  his  advan- 
tage; if  not,  his  export  manager,  if  he  has  one,  should 
personally  study  the  ground.  Those  who  look  merely  for 
a  slight  supplementary  trade  may  best  accomplish  this  by 
arranging  with  a  reliable  commission  house  and  following 
directions.  If  the  manufacturer  decides  to  undertake  the 
matter  himself,  he  must  plan  a  careful  campaign. 

To  make  haste  slowly  is  a  good  rule.  Unhappily  in  the 
past  some  who  have  attempted  foreign  trade  have  ignored 
the  advice  and  experience  of  others,  and  deemed  information 
quite  unnecessary.  With  the  know-it-all  attitude,  the  idea 
that  business  is  business  everywhere,  and  that  goods  and 
methods  successful  at  home  must  be  equally  good  for 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  439 

abroad,  before  the  War  they  proceeded  in  such  a  manner 
as  either  to  make  an  utter  failure  and  abandon  the  project, 
or  after  large  and  needless  losses  to  secure  profitable  busi- 
ness. Criticism  of  two  different  kinds  made  by  South  Amer- 
icans should  lead  to  the  correction  of  faults ;  otherwise  there 
will  be  a  complete  loss  of  trade  on  the  part  of  those  who 
are  guilty,  and  much  injury  to  our  commerce  generally  from 
the  resulting  bad  reputation  given  to  all  Americans.  One 
form  of  criticism  is  directed  to  the  character,  methods,  and 
manners  of  the  traveling  salesman  or  agent,  the  other  to  the 
shortcomings  of  the  home  office. 

During  the  War  period  when  at  times  our  goods  alone 
were  available,  even  poor  methods  and  service  brought  re- 
sults. That  the  continuance  of  such  a  course  will  be  suc- 
cessful in  the  face  of  the  severe  competition  now  arising 
is  too  much  to  expect.  A  friendly  Englishman  long  engaged 
in  business  in  South  America,  in  1916  remarked  that  he  was 
afraid  the  Americans  would  lose  60  per  cent  of  their  business 
after  the  War.  A  Peruvian  the  same  year  declared  that  they 
would  lose  it  all;  so  much  had  he  been  disgusted  by  the 
arbitrary  manner  of  some  salesmen  of  the  type  who  said  prac- 
tically, "There  is  the  stuff.  Take  it  or  leave  it  as  you  like." 
With  a  correct  atmosphere  in  the  home  office  and  a  more 
careful  choice  of  salesmen  such  crudeness  would  be  avoided. 

If  the  heads  of  the  office  are  unable  to  visit  the  coun- 
tries, there  is  greater  reason  for  wide  reading.  The 
"Movies,"  which  seem  to  entertain  many,  present  pictures  of 
a  few  phases  of  life;  but  it  is  not  by  such  means  that  one 
acquires  the  intimate  knowledge  of  a  country  and  people 
essential  for  a  proper  conduct  of  trade.  For  agreeable  and 
profitable  relationship  of  any  sort  with  those  of  other 
nationalities  we  must  realize  that  they  also  have  their  point 
of  view;  we  need  to  consider  how  they  regard  us.  While 
we  may  believe  our  country  to  be  the  greatest  and  best, 
and  our  ways  and  manner  of  living  superior,  we  must  bear 
in  mind  that  others  are  equally  loyal  to  their  own;  though 


440  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

their  country  may  be  smaller  and  in  some  respects  less 
advanced,  its  people  are  equally  patriotic,  they  prefer  their 
own  way  of  living  and  methods  of  business  where  these  are 
different.  Many  South  Americans  have  a  wider  knowledge 
of  the  world,  greater  culture  and  taste,  and  these  in  general 
are  more  punctilious  in  manners  and  dress  than  the  majority 
of  Americans.  We  must  therefore,  while  preserving  our 
own  tastes  and  ideals,  have  equal  respect  for  theirs,  culti- 
vating a  catholicity,  a  breadth  of  view,  quite  different  from 
the  spirit  common  among  us,  that  everything  different  is 
thereby  inferior,  that  we  can  teach  the  world  everything, 
and  that  we  have  nothing  to  learn.  Such  an  attitude  is 
merely  a  mark  of  ignorance  and  provincialism. 

Aside  from  visiting  the  countries  there  are  many  sources 
of  information  in  regard  to  sales  possibilities  for  any  class 
of  goods.  The  lists  of  imports  of  the  countries  and  of  some 
cities  are  available  in  commerce  reports,  with  figures  showing 
the  approximate  quantity  and  ratio  of  these.  While  the 
list  of  our  exports  seems  to  embrace  almost  everything,  all 
of  the  goods  are  not  sold  everywhere;  a  knowledge  of  the 
various  markets,  of  the  prices  at  which  goods  are  sold, 
and  of  trade  conditions  is  necessary,  to  ascertain  whether 
competition  is  possible  and  if  there  is  a  prospective  increase 
of  present  business.  Detailed  information  as  to  many  lines 
of  manufactures  and  markets  may  be  obtained  from  con- 
sular reports,  from  the  branches  of  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce located  in  a  few  cities,  or  by  writing  directly  to  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  in  Washing- 
ton. Many  persons  have  written  to  our  Consuls  in  Latin 
America,  often  to  their  great  disgust,  for  information,  not 
merely  such  as  might  be  procured  in  Washington,  but  what 
might  be  gained  by  looking  in  a  geography  or  reading  one 
of  many  available  books.  The  Consuls  are  continually 
making  reports  with  suitable  information  on  matters  which 
are  within  their  province.  Membership  in  certain  commer- 
cial organizations  gives  the  privilege  of  receiving  trade  in- 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  441 

formation;  the  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum,  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Manufacturers,  and  the  American 
Manufacturers  Export  Association,  chambers  of  commerce, 
commercial  clubs,  trade  associations,  such  as  one  of  jewel- 
ers and  silversmiths,  all  may  be  useful  in  this  direction.  The 
Pan  American  Union  through  its  Bulletin  and  otherwise 
furnishes  much  information  about  Latin  America.  Export 
Trade  Journals,  other  magazines  and  newspapers,  are  ser- 
viceable. 

If  from  investigation  it  appears  that  there  is  a  market 
for  one's  goods  in  any  section  or  universally,  that  quality 
and  prices  can  be  such  as  to  make  competition  favorable, 
that  the  market  can  be  enlarged,  or  should  there  be  none 
that  one  can  be  created,  and  a  determination  is  therefore 
formed  to  enter  export  trade,  the  next  question  is  how  the 
goods  shall  be  sold.  The  methods  are  various,  but  of  only 
two  kinds :  the  direct  and  the  indirect. 

Direct  methods  include  the  establishing  of  branch 
houses;  the  appointing  of  a  general  agent  for  one  or  more 
countries  or  of  a  local  agent  for  a  limited  territory;  the 
employment  of  traveling  salesmen;  and  advertising  in  cir- 
culars, newspapers,  or  magazines,  for  mail  orders  to  be  filled 
by  freight  or  parcel  post.  The  choice  of  methods,  and  the 
appointing  of  agents  or  salesmen  demand  the  greatest  care. 
Exclusive  rights  of  sale  have  been  given  for  the  whole  con- 
tinent to  a  South  American,  incompetent  even  to  take  care 
of  a  small  district.  Salesmen  have  been  appointed  from  the 
home  office  who  perhaps  had  done  well  here  but  were 
utterly  unfit  for  work  in  South  America. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  representatives  of  our  own  na- 
tionality. Others  if  employed  solely  by  an  American  Com- 
pany may  do  their  best  for  it,  but  we  now  know  that  many 
Germans,  possibly  others,  have  taken  agencies  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  keeping  the  goods  out  of  the  market.  A  good 
salesman  or  agent  of  any  sort  should  have  as  his  first  quali- 
fication ability  to  speak  Spanish  fluently,  unless  his  work 


442  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

is  confined  to  Brazil,  in  which  case  of  course  he  must  speak 
Portuguese.  Next  he  should  be  a  gentleman  and  simpdtico. 
The  spirit  which  led  some  youths  in  the  early  days  in 
Panama  to  call  the  residents  niggers,  monkeys,  and  savages 
is  one  which,  though  not  indulged  in  outwardly  to  such  a 
degree,  is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  harmonious  relations 
necessary  to  make  permanent,  satisfactory  business  deal- 
ings. Unquestioned  integrity,  unfailing  courtesy,  patience, 
tact,  straightforward  action,  are  all  highly  important  quali- 
ties, as  well  as  those  essential  from  a  strictly  business  point 
of  view,  such  as  critical  knowledge  of  the  goods,  etc.  Con- 
fidence and  friendliness  count  more  in  South  America  than 
at  home.  Social  qualifications  are  desirable.  It  has  been 
said  of  the  British  that  they  were  too  cold  and  exclusive, 
that  the  Germans  were  more  friendly.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  Americans  have  felt  that  the  South  Americans  did  not 
care  for  more  than  a  business  acquaintance.  This  is  doubt- 
less true  in  many  cases,  but  one  who  is  cultured,  sympa- 
thetic, and  well  mannered  is  likely  to  have  social  opportu- 
nities which  he  may  accept  to  advantage. 

Branch  houses  will  best  serve  the  large  manufacturer, 
giving  a  standing  not  otherwise  attained,  and  best  promot- 
ing permanent  relations.  From  these  houses  salesmen  go  to 
neighboring  territory.  The  manager  must  be  a  man  of  wide 
experience,  familiar  not  only  with  the  product  and  home 
matters,  but  with  the  language,  customs,  and  business 
methods  of  the  country  in  which  he  is  located.  Some  cor- 
porations engage  business  houses  in  different  sections  as 
local  representatives  or  distributors,  with  exclusive  rights 
in  restricted  territory.  Such  arrangements,  supplemented 
by  advice  and  literature  from  the  home  office  may  prove 
effective  in  securing  sales. 

Those  who  cannot  afford  branch  houses  or  the  risk 
which  may  attend  the  cost  of  a  traveling  salesman's  exclu- 
sive service  are  now  able  through  the  Webb-Pomerene  law 
to  cooperate  with  other  houses  in  the  same  or  in  associated 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  443 

lines  of  industry.  Both  investigation  and  sales  may  thus  be 
profitably  conducted.  Advertising  only,  without  the  em- 
ployment of  other  agencies,  has  been  highly  profitable  to 
many.  It  is  said  that  advertising  in  South  America  brings 
better  results  than  in  the  United  States.  To  avoid  utter 
waste  of  money  careful  investigation  as  to  sales  possibilities 
and  media  should  be  made  before  planning  a  campaign.  One 
large  mail  order  house  has  carried  on  an  enormous  foreign 
business.  Other  firms  have  accomplished  much  in  a  similar 
way.  Advertising  is  done  in  journals  and  magazines  pub- 
lished here  and  circulated  there,  in  local  publications  of 
various  kinds,  in  moving-picture  houses;  also  by  means  of 
mailed  circulars,  and  to  some  extent  by  electric  signs. 

The  importance  of  correct  technical  and  idiomatic  trans- 
lation in  advertising  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese  cannot  be 
over-estimated.  Gross  and  ridiculous  errors  have  been  made 
in  the  past.  A  book  knowledge  of  languages  seldom  pre- 
pares one  adequately  for  such  work.  Foreign  translators 
are  more  numerous  than  formerly,  but  they,  also,  too  often 
make  egregious  blunders;  not  of  the  same  character,  but 
caused  by  their  not  comprehending  exactly  the  English 
which  they  translate. 

If  indirect  methods  of  trade  are  preferred  as  involving 
less  risk,  trouble,  and  preliminary  expense,  and  if  the 
medium  is  carefully  chosen,  it  may  be  more  profitable.  Ex- 
port commission  houses  or  export  agents  will  relieve  the 
manufacturer  of  almost  all  care.  One  large  commission 
house  not  only  acts  as  selling  agent  for  manufacturers 
through  its  branches  in  many  parts  of  South  America;  it 
also  operates  steamship  lines,  carries  on  banking  and  ex- 
change, and  handles  important  financial  transactions  for 
South  American  Republics.  Certain  firms  of  national  or 
worldwide  reputation  and  large  capital  have  for  many  years 
been  satisfied  to  conduct  their  foreign  trade  through  such 
a  house.  The  opportunity  for  commission  houses  of  this 
sort  was  not  overlooked  by  foreigners  and  one  company  of 


444  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

these  in  New  York  did  an  annual  business  of  $30,000,000 
before  the  War. 

The  experience  of  a  commission  house  is  an  asset,  which 
saves  many  mistakes.  Their  experts  have  a  wide  range  of 
information  covering  American  and  European  competition, 
and  details  such  as  suitable  patterns,  correct  packing,  etc. 
The  commission  house  may  have  its  capital  tied  up  for  six 
months  in  transactions,  or  did  prior  to  the  more  general 
use  of  the  trade  acceptance,  while  the  manufacturer  might 
receive  cash  for  his  goods.  For  small  people  this  method 
of  sales  has  many  advantages,  especially  when  first  launch- 
ing into  export  trade.  Conference  and  honorable  coopera- 
tion are  necessary  and  the  protection  of  the  commission 
house  from  direct  under-selling  or  from  other  unfair  deal- 
ings. The  service  of  export  agents  is  preferred  by  some, 
these  acting  as  salesmen,  forwarders,  or  shippers,  either 
for  one  or  more  concerns,  perhaps  on  salary  and  commis- 
sion, or  as  independent  agents. 

After  securing  orders,  by  whatever  means  employed, 
the  responsibilities  of  the  shipping  department  begin.  The 
principles  governing  the  execution  of  orders  would  seem 
to  be  rudimentary.  One  wonders  how  a  business  in  this 
country  could  achieve  even  a  small  measure  of  success 
when  violating  the  most  elementary  rules  of  conduct.  Yet 
this  has  been  and  still  is  done  in  South  American  trade  as 
recent  information  from  various  sources  shows,  despite  the 
fact  that  these  things  should  go  without  saying,  and  fur- 
thermore that  they  have  been  iterated  and  reiterated  for 
years. 

First,  the  goods  to  fill  an  order  should  be  precisely  like 
the  sample,  if  there  was  one,  not  something  inferior,  as  has 
often  happened,  nor  something  just  as  good,  or  even  better. 
If  ordered  without  a  sample  strictest  attention  should  be 
paid  to  prescribed  details.,  If  it  is  specified  that  cloth  be 
28^2  inches  wide  or  25  centimetres,  that  is  what  is  wanted. 
If  two-wheeled  vehicles  are  ordered,  what  sort  of  business 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  445 

is  it  that  permits  of  sending,  by  mistake,  four-wheeled 
vehicles  a  distance  of  5000  miles,  even  though  the  bill  was 
made  the  same  and  the  goods  were  more  expensive?  as  was 
done  by  a  well  known  manufacturer  to  his  loss.  The  loss 
to  the  purchaser  was  greater,  for  the  vehicles  sent  could 
not  be  used  at  all  in  that  country. 

The  assumption  that  the  seller  knows  better  than  the 
buyer  what  the  latter  wants  is  offensive  if  true.  Generally 
it  is  not  true.  Mistakes  are  unpardonable.  Requests  for 
particular  colors,  patterns,  size  of  bolt,  and  character  of 
weave  must  be  complied  with  if  trade  is  wanted.  The 
willingness  of  the  Germans  to  oblige  in  such  matters  largely 
accounted  for  the  rapid  growth  of  their  South  American 
trade.  The  Latin  American  business  men  are  as  acute  and 
intelligent  as  any.  They  know  what  they  want  and  are 
discriminating  buyers  as  to  quality  and  price. 

Criticism  of  the  shortcomings  of  the  home  office  is  the 
second  of  the  two  forms  previously  referred  to.  Lack  of 
accuracy  and  of  attention  to  details  is  a  grievous  fault,  ap- 
parently arising  from  want  of  discipline  and  thoroughness 
in  our  homes  and  schools,  a  fault  recognized  by  many 
heads  of  offices  here.  The  dishonesty  of  sending  goods 
inferior  to  sample  or  order,  a  practice  injurious  to  the  entire 
national  trade  as  well  as  to  the  guilty  individual,  shows  an 
utter  lack  of  patriotism,  as  well  as  folly  if  permanent  trade 
is  desired. 

Another  elementary  matter  is  that  of  packing.  Woful 
tales  of  breakage  and  loss  from  bad  packing  have  been  rife 
for  years,  and  volumes  have  been  written  and  spoken  con- 
cerning it.  In  1916  an  experienced  traveling  man  told  me 
that  before  his  last  trip,  in  view  of  war  conditions,  he  had 
taken  on  the  agency  of  some  new  people  and  received  many 
orders  for  them.  He  had  sent  explicit  instructions  as  to 
packing  and  other  export  details.  But  now  he  found  his 
new  customers  swearing  mad  and  was  booking  no  more 
orders  for  his  new  patrons :  for  they  had  paid  not  the  slight- 


446  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

est  heed  to  his  directions  either  as  to  packing  or  forward- 
ing, with  disastrous  results.  In  February,  1919,  a  letter 
from  Brazil  said:  "We  cannot  imagine  why  your  shippers 
ever  accepted  the  travesty  of  an  export  bale  dumped  on 
you  by  the  spinners,  and  we  must  clearly  state  that  our 
factory  will  not  accept  any  yarns  which  arrive  in  bad  con- 
dition due  to  bad  packing." 

Unwillingness  to  profit  by  the  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence of  others,  the  belief  that  one  knows  everything  without 
learning  anything,  is  called  a  peculiarly  American  trait, 
though  happily  it  is  not  universal.  The  British  not  only 
pack  and  handle  goods  in  the  best  manner,  but  they  are 
careful  to  send  and  land  them  in  all  parts  of  the  world  by 
the  best  route  and  with  the  least  expense  to  the  receiver, 
as  the  world  knows.  Of  course  we  can  do  the  same  if  we 
take  the  trouble.  The  packing  department  for  the  soldiers 
overseas  showed  the  highest  excellence.  The  baling  of 
clothes  instead  of  boxing  saved  labor,  box  material,  and 
two  thirds  of  the  space,  and  goods  arrived  in  better  condi- 
tion. Fifty-five  million  dollars  were  saved  at  one  plant  in 
a  year.  Forty-nine  million  dollars  of  this  was  cargo  space, 
other  things  were  rent,  freight,  etc.  Fifty-eight  million  feet 
of  lumber  of  30  years  growth  were  spared.  The  burlap 
required  would  be  useful  in  South  America.  Square  pack- 
ages instead  of  round  are  advantageous.  Those  who  wish 
a  share  in  foreign  trade  must  take  the  pains  to  do  every- 
thing right.  The  most  careful  man,  familiar  with  the  metric 
system,  should  be  in  charge.  The  scales  should  show  pounds 
and  kilograms,  and  figures  be  given  for  net  weight,  con- 
tainer, etc.  Aside  from  careful  packing  to  avoid  breakage 
or  other  injury  as  from  water,  dampness,  or  pilfering,  in- 
structions are  often  given  as  to  size  and  weight  of  package. 
Mules,  donkeys,  and  llamas  usually  carry  two  packages, 
one  on  each  side;  the  ordinary  load  of  each  is  200,  150,  and 
100  Ibs.  respectively,  though  some  mules  will  take  300  Ibs. 
for  a  moderate  distance.  For  the  interior,  especially  on  the 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  447 

North  and  West  Coasts  and  in  some  sections  on  the  East, 
these  animals  are  the  only  means  of  transport,  and  goods 
must  be  packed  accordingly;  machinery  in  sections,  etc. 
Many  boxes  of  1000  pounds  weight  have  been  left  on  the 
dock  or  at  a  railway  station,  the  goods  a  total  loss. 

To  arrange  the  packing  with  an  eye  to  the  custom  house 
is  important,  both  in  order  that  the  contents  may  be  easily 
examined,  and  so  that  fines  or  exorbitant  imposts  may  be 
avoided.  Directions  and  governmental  regulations  as  to 
giving  separate  weight  of  container  and  goods,  and  the 
separation  of  different  classes  of  the  latter  must  be  scrupu- 
lously followed.  Heavy  fines  are  often  imposed  for  trivial 
errors  in  packing  or  invoice,  and  corrections  of  any  mistakes 
by  cable  are  expensive  if  frequent. 

Obligations  of  every  kind  should  be  fulfilled  with  fidelity 
though  a  bad  bargain  has  been  made  resulting  in  financial 
loss.  On  the  other  hand  consideration  for  the  embarrass- 
ments of  the  buyer  should  be  shown,  whether  these  are 
purely  personal  or  the  result  of  national  conditions  such 
as  followed  the  outbreak  of  the  War  or  the  conclusion  of 
the  Armistice.  After  the  unexpected  cessation  of  War 
many  orders  which  had  been  placed  here  were  suddenly 
cancelled  under  the  supposition  that  cooperation  such  as 
had  always  been  extended  by  European  merchants  would 
not  be  refused  here.  British  representatives  promptly 
offered  to  cancel  orders  for  goods  that  the  buyers  might 
not  care  to  receive  under  the  changed  circumstances,  while 
the  majority  of  Americans  made  many  difficulties:  a  con- 
trast in  conduct  liable  to  influence  unfavorably  future  trade, 
especially  when  added  to  the  fact  that  vast  numbers  here 
cancelled  orders  and  that  the  average  American  manufac- 
turer had  taken  advantage  of  the  situation  created  by  the 
War  to  charge  exorbitant  prices  in  excess  of  those  applying 
to  domestic  trade.  Thus  some  manufacturers  who  have  cried 
out  about  the  bad  faith  of  the  South  Americans,  with  no 
consideration  for  their  difficulties,  have  forfeited  their  con- 


448  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

fidence  and  friendship,  with  a  probable  loss  of  future  trade 
unless  able  to  offer  remarkably  attractive  bargains. 

The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  in  the  shipping  of  goods 
as  well  as  in  the  packing.  Promptness  is  an  important 
feature.  Where  regular  sailings  occur  space  should  be 
engaged  in  advance,  and  the  necessary  papers  accurately 
made  out  in  good  season,  in  view  of  the  many  copies  of  the 
consular  invoices,  the  bills  of  lading,  the  clearance  papers, 
and  the  short  hours  of  some  of  the  consulates.  To  avoid  the 
trouble  of  attending  to  these  and  other  elaborate  details, 
many  manufacturers  find  it  convenient  to  employ  a  Freight 
Forwarder  who  looks  after  such  matters  including  insurance 
of  various  kinds  covering  theft,  damage,  and  total  loss.  He 
will  know  the  most  favorable  trade  routes,  look  after  trans- 
fer and  storage,  and  fill  all  requirements,  if  qualified  for 
his  job. 

No  dealings  should  be  initiated  in  any  country  until 
after  the  registration  of  patents  and  trademarks. 

Trouble  should  be  taken  to  adjust  any  bona  fide  com- 
plaint and  to  satisfy  reasonable  customers.  On  account  of 
length  of  time  and  distance,  especial  pains  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  possible  difficulty  or  disagreement. 

The  establishing  of  American  banks  in  South  America 
has  been  a  boon  to  manufacturers.  The  houses  of  Dun  and 
of  Bradstreet  perform  much  service  for  their  clients  in  the 
line  of  credit  information.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
Government  might  collect  information  for  general  private 
use.  It  may  be  said  that  experience  shows  losses  in  foreign 
trade  to  be  less  than  in  domestic.  Yet,  as  shysters  exist 
everywhere,  suitable  precaution  should  be  exercised,  guaran- 
tees required,  or  the  reliability  of  the  house  made  certain. 

The  use  of  the  trade  acceptance,  a  negotiable  note  given 
by  the  purchaser  to  the  seller  of  goods,  now  becoming 
general,  is  of  great  assistance  to  those  who  were  deterred 
from  entering  South  American  trade  on  account  of  the  long 
credits  which  seemed  necessary.  Foreign  bankers  invest 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  449 

in  the  commercial  bills  of  other  countries,  knowing  them 
to  be  convertible  into  cash  in  those  countries.  Private 
houses  handling  investments  or  commercial  paper  have 
added  departments  for  dealing  in  acceptances.  The  subject 
of  foreign  exchange  should  be  familiar,  the  fluctuations  hav- 
ing an  important  bearing  on  purchasing  power  and  trade, 
while  exchange  itself  is  dependent  on  foreign  trade  condi- 
tions, being  an  index  of  international  transactions.  Careful 
consideration  of  this  matter  is  necessary  in  quoting  prices. 
In  normal  times  it  was  customary  on  English  imports  to 
reckon  the  pound  as  $4.90,  and  in  export  as  $4.80  to  cover 
incidental  expenses. 

In  certain  lines,  for  example,  in  hand-made  goods,  it 
is  impossible  for  this  country  to  face  European  or  Asiatic 
competition.  In  some  kinds  of  machine-made  goods  we 
excel.  In  lines  where  competition  seems  difficult  the  excel- 
lent suggestion  has  been  made  that  costs  may  be  reduced. 
The  lowering  of  the  daily  wage  has  in  some  cases  occurred ; 
and  more  may  be  accomplished  by  diminishing  overhead 
expense.  The  high  salaries  of  the  heads  and  of  numerous 
assistants  in  plants  of  moderate  size  and  the  expenses  of 
salesmen  are  often  unnecessarily  large,  giving  rise  to  foolish 
and  injurious  extravagance,  which  indeed  has  permeated 
all  classes  of  society.  Carnegie  while  building  up  his  Steel 
Company,  and  President  McKinley  smoked  cigars  cost- 
ing five  cents  each,  while  some  modern  salesmen  pay  50 
cents  for  one,  with  other  things  in  proportion.  Some  hotels 
charge  40  cents  for  a  potato  not  costing  one ;  a  Washington 
hotel  asks  60  cents  for  a  slice  of  watermelon  when  a  whole 
one  is  selling  on  the  street  for  15  cents.  The  head  of  a 
company  suggests  that  by  reducing  one-third  of  the  personal 
and  family  expenses  for  luxuries  they  will  live  longer  and 
be  happier;  that  one-third  of  the  middle  men  might  be 
cut  out;  that  the  office  and  supervising  class  could  accom- 
plish 25  per  cent  more  and  cut  down  office  expenses  one- 
third;  that  the  laboring  man  could  increase  his  efficiency 


450  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

and  output  one-third  without  injury  and  come  nearer  to 
earning  his  wages;  and  that  the  unreasonable  waste  of 
material  should  be  diminished.  I  would  however  add  that 
many  heads  of  establishments  and  departments  work  harder 
and  more  hours  than  the  ordinary  office  force  or  laborer. 

One  would  naturally  desire  to  have  his  firm  name  on 
such  goods  as  permit  this;  "Made  in  U.S.A."  seems  desir- 
able where  practicable.  It  has  happened  that  Germans 
handling  American  machinery  have  covered  such  marks 
with  their  own.  It  may  be  noted  that  in  South  America 
many  of  the  large  mercantile  establishments  of  various 
kinds,  dry  goods  and  others,  are  in  the  hands  of  British  or 
German  firms.  A  considerable  portion  of  trade  in  the  large 
cities  is  conducted  by  other  than  the  native  born. 

For  the  best  development  of  our  foreign  trade  it  is  neces- 
sary that  young  men  entering  this  field  should  be  of  higher 
type  than  the  average  in  domestic  affairs,  particularly  those 
who  will  go  to  foreign  lands.  The  larger  number  may  not 
be  called  upon  to  go  outside  of  their  town  or  country,  as 
many  must  be  engaged  in  the  export  department,  at  the 
factory  or  the  seaport,  or  in  commission  houses  and  banks, 
as  export  agents  or  freight  forwarders,  etc.  Others  will  go 
abroad  as  salesmen  on  tours,  or  to  reside  a  few  or  many 
years  in  the  capacity  of  local  agents,  in  branch  houses  of 
large  companies,  civil  and  mining  engineers,  etc. 

Many  of  both  sexes  have  enough  of  the  spirit  of  adven- 
ture to  enjoy  the  prospect  of  at  least  a  temporary  residence 
in  another  land.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  those  who  desire  the 
broader  career  will  enter  it  not  solely  for  the  pecuniary 
reward  but  with  something  of  the  spirit  which  animated  our 
soldiers,  the  knowledge  that  they  may  extend  the  prestige 
of  their  country  and  uphold  the  best  traditions  of  democ- 
racy; with  the  feeling  that  their  work,  if  well  done,  is 
patriotic  in  character,  an  essential  and  splendid  vocation, 
a  dignified  career  for  the  development  of  the  commerce 
and  the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of  a  great  nation.  Charac- 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  451 

ter,  the  manners  of  a  gentleman,  and  educational  prepara- 
tion are  among  the  requisite  qualifications.  Of  prime  neces- 
sity is  a  familiarity  with  one  or  two  foreign  languages; 
also  a  training  that  will  develop  thoroughness  and  accuracy 
and  the  consciousness  that  these  are  essential.  Nothing 
will  accomplish  this  better  than  a  good  groundwork  of 
Latin;  which  makes  mere  play  the  acquisition  of  any 
derived  language  like  Spanish,  French,  or  Portuguese.  A 
sound  understanding  of  Latin  syntax  is  needed  for  easy 
comprehension  of  these  languages,  with  their  varied  forms 
and  constructions,  so  different  from  our  simple  English, 
which  indeed  one  who  is  ignorant  of  any  other  language 
hardly  comprehends.  The  ability  to  conduct  business  cor- 
respondence correctly  and  with  at  least  some  degree  of 
the  elegance  and  courteous  phraseology  current  in  other 
lands  where  our  brusque  letters  and  speech  are  disliked  if 
not  resented:  Knowledge  of  office  routine  especially  as  to 
the  various  papers  to  be  procured  and  prepared  in  connec- 
tion with  foreign  transactions:  An  acquaintance  with  the 
requirements  of  shipping  practices,  trade  routes,  types  of 
vessels,  freight  rates,  insurance  of  various  kinds,  loading 
and  unloading  facilities  at  different  ports,  and  details  as  to 
the  arrival  and  despatch  of  cargoes  and  vessels:  A  study 
of  the  principles  of  commercial  law  needed  to  enable  one 
to  decide  business  questions,  disputes  and  misunderstand- 
ings, according  to  equity  and  international  practice:  A  close 
study  of  the  economic  conditions  which  govern  the  produc- 
tion of  the  countries,  of  the  social  institutions  and  customs, 
of  advertising  needs  and  methods,  of  shipping  facilities,  of 
banking  facilities  and  methods,  credit  practices  and  require- 
ments, and  any  discrimination  in  tariffs  or  regulations : 

A  study  of  the  foreign  trade  practices  and  methods  of 
those  countries  already  occupying  these  markets,  the  charac- 
ter and  style  of  their  goods  and  their  methods  of  securing 
and  holding  business :  Acquaintance  with  the  financial  and 
investment  relations  of  other  countries  as  affecting  inter- 


452  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

national  trade ;  with  foreign  banking  practices  and  with  the 
mechanism  of  foreign  exchange:  A  study  of  physical 
geography  including  the  natural  resources,  climatic  con- 
ditions, and  characteristic  peculiarities  of  each  country :  A 
knowledge  of  the  history  and  affiliations  of  the  countries, 
with  the  character  of  their  governments  as  likely  to  bear 
on  their  commerce : — All  these  are  matters  which  must  not 
be  overlooked  by  any  one  who  wishes  to  become  an  expert 
in  foreign  trade.  Some  acquaintance  with  the  racial  origin 
and  relations  of  the  nations,  with  their  social  customs, 
religious  tendencies,  and  traditions  may  at  times  help  in 
determining  trade  possibilities.  It  is  important  to  realize 
that  the  cultivation  of  tact,  dignity,  and  judgment  is  neces- 
sary for  success  as  a  foreign  representative,  and  that  such 
an  one  may  prove  a  more  valuable  ambassador  than  some 
of  those  occupying  such  position,  to  whom  a  similar  train- 
ing would  be  of  advantage. 

Furthermore  we  must  realize  that  no  nation  can  sell  largely 
abroad  unless  it  buys  also,  and  that  we  must  purchase  from 
South  America  if  we  expect  to  sell  there.  Fortunately  they 
have  many  agricultural  products,  which  we  do  not  produce, 
and  other  raw  material  of  which  we  have  not  sufficient.  Yet 
probably  we  cannot  take  as  much  from  them  as  we  should 
like  to  sell.  WE  MUST  therefore  INVEST,  now  that  we  are  a 
creditor  nation,  in  the  securities  of  others,  the  bonds  of  the 
countries  and  cities;  we  must  send  our  capital  to  develop 
public  utilities  where  these  are  lacking,  as  for  sewerage 
and  water  supply.  Electric  lighting  plants  and  power, 
docks  and  railways,  have  proved  excellent  investments.  The 
better  banking  facilities  now  provided  encourage  these  on 
our  part.  The  British,  French,  and  Belgians  have  been 
beforehand  in  this  matter.  The  British  have  invested  more 
than  two  billions  in  Argentina,  $1,200,000,000  in  Brazil, 
smaller  sums  in  Uruguay  and  Chile.  The  Germans  have 
not  invested  much  money,  their  banks  bringing  chiefly 
credit  and  making  money  by  taking  part  of  the  business  of 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE  453 

local  banks,  a  practice  not  conducive  to  popularity.  The 
United  States,  i.e.,  some  people,  have  invested  $175,000,000 
or  more  in  Brazil,  smaller  sums  in  other  countries.  Large 
opportunities  lie  open  in  this  direction. 

That  loans  should  be  made  to  foreign  countries  only  on 
condition  that  the  money  be  spent  here,  seems  a  short-sighted 
policy,  as  also  restrictions  on  our  export  of  gold,  when  our  ex- 
cessive holding  of  that  metal  is  a  contributing  cause  of  the 
unfortunate  exchange  situation.  Many  Republics  need  rail- 
ways, for  which  construction  material  and  equipment  would 
be  here  purchased  if  here  financed;  but  part  of  the  money 
must  be  spent  on  the  ground;  so  with  works  of  irrigation 
and  other  public  or  private  construction.  If  we  must  always 
be  selfish,  at  least  our  selfishness  should  be  enlightened,  and 
we  should  realize  that  in  the  long  run  we  shall  gain  more 
by  manifesting  a  friendly  spirit  of  service  and  cooperation 
rather  than  by  showing  intense  eagerness  for  the  "mighty 
dollar." 


CHAPTER  LIT 
LIFE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA 

While  the  variety  of  conditions  in  South  America  makes 
any  treatment  of  this  subject  necessarily  superficial,  a  few 
words  beyond  those  already  said  may  not  be  out  of  place, 
since  it  is  evident  that  for  the  successful  conduct  of  our 
trade  many  persons  from  the  United  States  must  spend 
some  years  or  reside  permanently  in  the  several  countries. 
From  the  descriptions  given  one  should  have  a  fair  idea  as 
to  climatic  conditions  in  these  and  make  an  intelligent 
choice  of  locality  if  any  is  offered.  Some  persons  will  be 
happy  in  warm  Rio  or  even  in  more  tropical  Para.  Others  will 
prefer  Andean  heights,  from  7000  to  14,000  feet  altitude, 
the  higher  for  persons  with  sound  hearts  only.  Most  of  the 
cities  where  one  is  likely  to  be  stationed  have  a  fairly  tem- 
perate climate,  and  good  health  conditions,  except  as  pre- 
viously indicated. 

In  respect  to  social  advantages  there  is  considerable 
variety.  In  general  the  smaller  the  city  the  greater  the 
hospitality  and  the  more  will  one's  society  be  cultivated, 
as  is  true  in  the  United  States  also.  On  the  other  hand 
in  the  important  commercial  cities,  the  English-speaking 
folk  are  numerous  enough  to  make  an  agreeable  society 
for  themselves,  and  some  South  Americans  have  made  the 
criticism  that  the  English  and  Americans  hold  aloof, 
apparently  preferring  their  own  company :  a  mistake  from  a 
business  point  of  view  and  also  nationally.  One  must,  how- 
ever, have  the  right  qualifications  for  cordial  recognition 
anywhere.  It  has  been  stated  of  Buenos  Aires  that  the 
fact  of  membership  in  the  diplomatic  corps  did  not  entitle 

454 


LIFE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  455 

the  gentleman  and  his  family  to  more  than  official  cour- 
tesies; to  be  received  socially  he  must  be  persona  grata. 
This  is  true  to  some  extent  everywhere.  At  the  same  time 
one  who  is  at  the  head  of  a  large  commercial  establishment 
is  more  likely  to  have  social  opportunities  than  members  of 
the  office  staff,  one  of  whom,  a  young  man  of  unusually  good 
manners  and  attractive  personality  complained  to  me  in 
Lima  some  years  ago,  that  he  had  no  social  opportunities. 
It  is  different  now.  On  the  other  hand  a  young  dentist  in 
a  city  of  Argentina  where  Americans  are  few  associated 
with  the  best  people  and  married  into  one  of  the  first 
families. 

At  the  mining  camps  of  the  Americans  provision  is  now 
made  for  the  social  life  of  the  employes  and  for  exercise 
and  recreation,  also  by  other  large  corporations.  In  general 
I  believe  that  men  enjoy  the  life  in  South  America  better  than 
the-ir  wives.  Some  of  the  latter  decline  to  go  or  to  remain 
after  being  there  a  while :  a  great  mistake  if  they  have  any 
regard  for  their  husband's  welfare,  unless  the  care  of  chil- 
dren or  other  serious  matter  compels  their  return.  Many 
women  are  perfectly  contented,  this  depending  in  some 
degree  on  their  location,  but  chiefly  upon  their  disposition. 
In  the  town  of  Sorata,  Bolivia,  I  chanced  to  meet  one  who 
seemed  perfectly  happy,  though  she  was  the  only  English 
speaking  woman  in  the  place,  or  within  100  miles. 

It  is  desirable  for  banks  and  business  houses  to  give 
their  young  men  sufficient  salaries  to  permit  them  to  marry 
and  take  their  wives  along.  It  will  be  better  for  both  parties 
in  the  long  run.  Perhaps  there  are  no  more  temptations 
than  in  our  own  large  cities,  but  in  most  places  there  are 
fewer  forms  of  wholesome  recreation.  Too  many  men  in 
cities  and  in  mining  camps  have  gone  to  pieces  as  they 
say. 

Some  men  prefer  life  abroad  for  the  reason  that  they 
feel  less  restraint  than  in  their  native  home  or  even  in  our 
metropolis,  rather  than  the  responsibility  which  a  real 


456  LIFE  IN  SOUTH^  AMERICA 

patriot  should  recognize  of  presenting  the  highest  American 
ideals  of  manners,  conduct,  and  business  practices.  If  one 
cannot  be  contented  without  going  somewhere  every  night, 
except  in  Rio  or  Buenos  Aires  he  might  be  unhappy  or 
worse.  It  would  be  well  if  persons  everywhere  had  suffi- 
cient intelligence  to  enjoy  themselves  at  home  with  a  good 
book,  a  quiet  game  of  cards,  even  cribbage;  but  especially 
books  that  are  worth  while,  valuable  as  literature  or  as 
containing  information  about  the  world  in  general  or  on 
matters  connected  with  business.  "Movies"  are  found 
almost  everywhere;  in  the  larger  cities,  theatres  and  a  long 
or  short  season  of  opera ;  clubs  with  opportunities  for  golf, 
tennis,  and  other  sports ;  often  horse  races.  In  smaller  towns 
horseback  riding  is  a  common,  sometimes  the  chief  diver- 
sion; but  in  such  places  one  sooner  enters  the  social  life 
of  the  community*  Some  Americans  say  they  would  not 
take  a  wife  to  such  a  place,  but  if  she  is  wise  she  will  go. 
Punctiliousness  in  dress  as  well  as  in  manners  is  more 
highly  regarded  in  South  America  than  in  the  United  States. 
Evening  dress  is  more  general  in  large  cities  than  in  most 
of  ours,  and  correct  afternoon  dress  for  men  is  a  more  rigid 
requirement.  Some  persons  on  important  missions  have 
astonished  the  Latins  by  their  negligence  in  this  regard. 
Of  course  a  gentleman  is  a  gentleman  the  world  over  and 
such  an  one  will  have  no  trouble.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
imitate  certain  mannerisms  of  many  South  Americans,  yet 
a  little  more  effusiveness  is  easily  acquired  and  may  be  an 
improvement  on  the  coldness  of  the  Anglo  Saxon.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  men  regularly  lift  their  hats  to  each  other, 
that  they  shake  hands  much  oftener,  when  you  come  and 
when  you  go,  make  more  inquiries  after  your  health,  etc. 
That  they  pat  each  other  on  the  back,  give  mild  hugs,  or 
at  times  kiss  one  another  (not  you),  will  perhaps  not  seem 
so  terrible  as  formerly,  now  that  so  much  has  been  written 
about  brave  marshals  and  generals  kissing  soldiers  on  both 
cheeks  when  conferring  decorations. 


LIFE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  457 

Courtesy  must  not  be  considered  hypocrisy  because 
phrases  like  "The  house  is  yours"  mean  no  more  than  our 
remarks  "I  am  glad  to  see  you"  or  "How  are  you?"  though 
we  may  wish  the  caller  in  Africa  and  have  no  real  interest 
in  his  health.  Not  everywhere  is  the  same  courtesy  evident. 
On  my  first  visit  to  La  Paz  in  1903  I  noticed  that  men 
frequently  stepped  from  the  narrow  sidewalk  into  the  gutter 
to  allow  a  lady  to  pass.  More  recently  in  a  much  larger 
city,  still  with  some  narrow  sidewalks,  I  frequently  stepped 
into  the  street  myself  to  avoid  crowding  past  a  gentleman  (  ?) 
who  made  no  move  to  give  way. 

The  cost  of  living  is  an  item  of  practical  interest.  Some 
remarks  on  this  subject  have  seemed  to  me  exaggerated. 
Great  diversity  exists  in  this  respect  in  the  different  cities : 
the  larger  the  more  expensive,  as  in  the  world  generally. 
In  most  of  the  capital  cities  and  chief  ports  rents  are  high ; 
in  some  places  many  articles  of  food  are  dear  with  others 
cheap;  similarly  with  dry  goods  and  other  articles,  some 
higher  than  in  New  York,  others  lower.  Recent  unusual 
conditions  have  made  sudden  changes  which  may  be  re- 
peated. Living  expenses  were  increased  by  the  War,  and 
on  account  of  the  influx  of  foreigners  for  business  houses. 
In  1916  rents  in  Buenos  Aires  were  lowered  in  the  business 
centre;  but  they  have  now  advanced  to  their  former  price 
or  higher.  Years  ago  one  of  our  diplomats  there  paid  more 
for  his  house  rent  than  his  entire  salary  on  which  others 
perhaps  have  managed  to  live. 

In  remote  sections,  for  instance  in  the  Huailas  Valley, 
Peru,  in  1906,  a  sheep  cost  $i,  a  lamb  40  cents,  a  chicken 
15  cents,  beefsteak,  9  cents  a  pound.  The  cook  received 
$1.50  a  month  and  board.  Fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  were 
almost  given  away.  In  Lima  then  as  now  it  was  very 
different,  some  kinds  of  food  were  expensive,  others  cheap. 
Coal  and  kerosene  oil  are  dear  everywhere  except  in  the 
Huailas  Valley  where  coal  is  abundant  with  no  market. 
In  Buenos  Aires  a  few  apartment  houses  and  hotels  have 


458  LIFE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA 

hot  water  heating,  but  in  many  places  in  winter  one  freezes, 
or  uses  an  oil  stove  or  an  electric  heater,  the  former  the 
cheaper  and  more  effective. 

Persons  of  adaptable  disposition  may  spend  a  few  years 
in  South  America  with  pleasure  and  profit,  returning  with 
broader  minds,  and  with  the  ability  to  command  higher 
salaries  than  if  they  had  remained  at  home. 


APPENDIX  I 
POSTAL  REGULATIONS 

Much  repetition  is  avoided  and  probably  greater  con- 
venience secured  by  presenting  a  summary  of  the  Postal 
Regulations.  All  of  the  South  American  Republics  are  mem- 
bers of  the  Postal  Union.  In  November,  1920,  a  Pan  American 
Postal  Federation  was  formed.  According  to  the  convention 
adopted,  domestic  rates  will  apply  to  letters,  postal  cards,  and 
printed  matter,  among  the  various  countries  of  Latin 
America  and  the  United  States,  as  soon  as  they  have  ratified 
the  agreement.  At  present,  October,  1921,  this  has  been 
done  by  the  United  States  and  by  the  South  American 
Republics,  Argentina,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Colombia,  and  Peru. 
To  these  the  letter  rate  is  two  cents,  postal  cards,  one  cent, 
return  cards  two  cents;  printed  matter,  newspapers  and 
periodicals,  one  cent  for  four  ounces.  The  old  rates  now  ef- 
fective in  the  other  countries  will  doubtless  soon  be  reduced, 
and  should  therefore  be  investigated. 

Parcel  post  service  has  been  extended  so  that  parcels 
weighing  up  to  22  pounds  may  be  sent  to  Argentina,  Brazil, 
Colombia,  Paraguay,  and  Peru.  To  Ecuador  20  pounds  is 
the  limit;  to  Bolivia,  Chile,  British,  Dutch,  and  French 
Guiana,  Uruguay,  and  Venezuela,  II  pounds  is  the  maxi- 
mum<  The  rate  to  all  is  12  cents  a  pound  or  a  fraction 
thereof;  except  that  to  Paraguay,  on  account  of  transit 
through  Argentina,  30  cents  additional  must  be  paid  for  a 
parcel  weighing  n  pounds  or  less,  and  60  cents  for  one 
above  that  to  22  pounds.  In  Brazil,  this  service  is  limited 
to  Bahia,  Bello  Horizonte,  Curityba,  Manaos,  Para,  Pelotas, 
Pernambuco,  Porto  Alegre,  Rio  de  Janeiro  (including 

459 


460  APPENDIX  I 

Petropolis),  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  Sao  Paulo.  Parcels 
are  subject  to  customs  duties,  and  these  with  other  details 
should  be  investigated.  Parcels  may  be  registered  for 
Bolivia,  Brazil,  British  Guiana,  Chile,  Ecuador,  Peru, 
Venezuela,  but  not  for  the  other  countries. 

Money  orders  may  be  sent  to  Peru,  Bolivia,  and 
Uruguay. 

Changes  resulting  from  the  Pan  American  Postal  Con- 
gress at  Buenos  Aires  in  1921  will  be  inaugurated  January, 
1923  or  earlier. 

CABLE  FACILITIES 

On  the  North  Coast,  Cartagena  has  direct  cable  connection 
with  Colon  and  so  with  New  York.  To  Puerto  Colombia  a 
cable  has  been  laid,  which,  however,  December,  1921,  has 
not  yet  been  opened.  A  French  company  has  a  line 
from  Salinas  near  Para  to  Cayenne,  Paramaribo,  and 
Martinique,  another  from  La  Guaira,  to  Curasao,  and  Santo 
Domingo.  The  Venezuelan  Government  has  its  own  cable 
along  the  coast  from  Maracaibo,  to  La  Guaira,  Barcelona, 
and  other  points.  A  British  line  connects  Georgetown, 
Guiana,  with  the  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad. 

The  West  Coast  is  connected  with  North  America  by 
three  lines  of  the  All  America  system:  one  from  Nicaragua 
and  two  from  Panama  to  Santa  Elena,  Ecuador,  one  of  the 
latter  by  way  of  Buenaventura  and  Esmeraldas.  The  three 
lines  continue  south  to  Callao,  one  touching  at  Paita.  Two 
go  on  to  Iquique  and  Valparaiso,  one  touching  at  Anto- 
fagasta,  while  a  branch  comes  north  from  Iquique  to  Arica 
to  make  connection  with  La  Paz.  A  cable  of  another  com- 
pany from  Callao  touches  at  Mollendo,  Arica,  Antofagasta, 
La  Serena,  Valparaiso,  and  Concepcion. 

The  East  Coast  is  connected  with  the  cables  of  the  West 
Coast  by  three  private  wires  of  the  All  America  Cables 
over  the  Andes  from  Valparaiso  to  Buenos  Aires,  so  that 


POSTAL  REGULATIONS  461 

they  can  handle  messages  to  the  Argentine  metropolis,  7452 
miles  from  New  York,  by  automatic  methods  in  15  minutes. 
Another  cable  company  has  a  land  line  from  Valparaiso 
to  La  Plata,  where  connection  is  made  with  its  Trans- 
Atlantic  cable  to  Africa  and  Europe.  Both  companies  have 
short  lines  to  Montevideo,  the  focus  of  the  East  Coast  lines. 
From  here  the  All  America  has  a  cable  to  Santos  and  one 
to  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  other,  the  Western  Telegraph,  has 
one  to  Chuy,  Uruguay,  thence  to  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Santa 
Catharina,  Santos,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Bahia,  Pernambuco, 
Fortaleza,  Maranhao,  and  Para,  Brazil;  and  one  from  Chuy 
direct  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Pernambuco.  Four  cables 
from  the  latter  port  connect  with  Africa  and  Europe.  The 
Western  Telegraph  was  to  lay  a  cable  from  Maranhao  to 
Barbados,  there  to  connect  with  the  Western  Union  line  to 
Florida.  The  All  America  expects  to  lay  a  cable  from  Cuba 
south  to  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  Amazon  Company  has  a  cable 
up  that  river  from  Para. 

METRIC  SYSTEM 

The  Metric  System  of  weights  and  measures  is  legal 
and  official  in  all  the  Republics  and  obligatory  in  most,  in 
Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Peru,  and  Venezuela. 
In  the  other  countries  and  in  some  of  these,  the  old  Spanish 
measures  (Portuguese  in  Brazil)  are  more  or  less  used, 
but  these  differ  in  the  various  countries  and  are  nowhere 
like  ours.  Always  to  employ  the  metric  system  is  highly 
important  and  in  the  above  mentioned  countries  necessary, 
though  for  shipping  to  some,  the  weight  in  pounds  must  also 
be  given.  In  Chile  the  use  of  other  weights  and  measures 
is  prohibited;  also  in  Uruguay,  where  their  importation  is 
forbidden. 


APPENDIX  II 
LEADING  BANKS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Including  the  branches  and  affiliations  of  American 
banks  and  banking  houses,  British  banks,  and  the  most 
important  local  banks  of  each  country. 

UNITED  STATES  BANKS 

The  National  City  Bank,  55  Wall  St.,  New  York  City, 
which  led  the  way,  has  branches  in  six  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can Republics, 

The  Mercantile  Bank  of  the  Americas,  44  Pine  St.,  New 
York, 

The  American  Foreign  Banking  Corporation,  53  Broad- 
way, New  York, 

W.  R.  Grace  and  Company's  Bank,  7  Hanover  Square, 
New  York, 

The  First  National  Bank,  70  Federal  St.,  Boston, 

The  American  Express  Company,  65  Broadway,  New 
York,  with  offices  in  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina;  Montevideo, 
Uruguay;  and  Valparaiso,  Chile;  and  with  correspondents 
in  other  cities,  performs  some  banking  service. 

BRITISH  BANKS 

Important  banks  with  New  York  offices  and  with  many 
branches  in  South  America  are: 

The  Anglo  South  American  Bank,  49  Broadway,  New 
York,  affiliated  with 

The  British  Bank  of  South  America,  and  with 

The  Commercial  Bank  of  Spanish  America,  49  Broad- 
way, New  York; 

462 


LEADING  BANKS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  463 

The  London  and  River  Plate  Bank,  51  Wall  St.,  New 
York, 

The  London  and  Brazilian  Bank,  56  Wall  St.,  New  York, 
The  Royal  Bank  of  Canada,  68  William  St.,  New  York. 


BRANCHES  AND  AFFILIATIONS 

National  City  Bank,  Branches:  Argentina,  Buenos 
Aires,  Rosario;  Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Sao  Paulo, 
Pernambuco;  Chile,  Santiago,  Valparaiso;  Peru,  Lima; 
Uruguay,  Montevideo ;  Venezuela,  Caracas. 

Mercantile  Bank  of  the  Americas:  Affiliated  Banks: 
Colombia,  Banco  Mercantil  Americano  de  Colombia,  Bogota 
Barranquilla,  Cartagena,  Medellin,  Cali,  Girardot,  Manizales; 
Peru,  Banco  Mercantil  Americano  de  Peru,  Lima,  Arequipa, 
Chiclayo,  Callao,  Piura,  Trujillo;  Venezuela,  Banco  Mercantil 
Americano  de  Caracas,  Caracas,  La  Guaira,  Maracaibo,  Puerto 
Cabello,  Valencia;  Agency  in  Ecuador. 

The  American  Foreign  Banking  Corporation:  Argentina, 
Buenos  Aires;  Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

W.  R.  Grace  and  Company's  Bank:  Argentina,  Buenos 
Aires,  W.  R.  Grace  y  Cia. ;  Bolivia,  La  Paz,  W.  R.  Grace- 
and  Company ;  Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Grace  and  Company ; 
Chile:  Santiago,  Grace  y  Cia.,  Valparaiso,  W.  R.  Grace 
and  Company,  Iquique,  Nitrate  Agencies,  Ltd.;  Ecuador, 
Guayaquil,  Guayaquil  Agencies  Company;  Peru,  Lima,  W. 
R.  Grace  and  Company;  Venezuela,  Caracas,  Venezuela 
Commercial  Company. 

The  First  National  Bank,  Boston :  Argentina,  Buenos 
Aires. 

The  Anglo  South  American  Bank:  Chile,  Antofagasta, 
Chilian,  Concepcion,  Copiapo,  Coquimbo,  Iquique,  Punta 
Arenas,  Santiago,  Talcahuano,  Valparaiso;  Argentina, 
Buenos  Aires,  Bahia  Blanca,  Comodoro  Rivadavia,  Mendoza, 
Puerto  Deseado,  Rio  Gallegos,  Rosario  de  Santa  Fe,  San 


464  APPENDIX  II 

Julian,  San  Rafael,  Santa  Cruz,  Trelew;  Peru,  Lima; 
Uruguay,  Montevideo. 

The  British  Bank  of  South  America :  Argentina,  Buenos 
Aires,  Rosario  de  Santa  Fe;  Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Bahia, 
Pernambuco,  Porto  Alegre,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Sao  Paulo; 
Uruguay,  Montevideo. 

The  Commercial  Bank  of  Spanish  America:  Colombia, 
Bogota,  Barranquilla,  Medellin;  Ecuador,  Guayaquil,  Manta; 
Peru,  Iquitos;  Venezuela,  Caracas,  Puerto  Cabello. 

The  London  and  River  Plate  Bank :  Argentina,  Buenos 
Aires,  Rosario  de  Santa  Fe,  Mendoza,  Bahia  Blanca,  Con- 
cordia,  Cordoba,  Parana,  Tucuman;  Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Para,  Maceio,  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Santos,  Sao  Paulo, 
Curityba,  Pelotas,  Porto  Alegre,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul ;  Chile, 
Santiago,  Valparaiso,  Antofagasta;  Colombia,  Bogota; 
Paraguay,  Asuncion;  Uruguay,  Montevideo,  Salto,  Pay- 
sandu. 

The  London  and  Brazilian  Bank:  Argentina,  Buenos 
Aires,  Rosario;  Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Manaos,  Para, 
Maranhao,  Ceara,  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Santos,  Sao  Paulo, 
Curityba,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Pelotas,  Porto  Alegre; 
Uruguay,  Montevideo. 

The  Royal  Bank  of  Canada:  Argentina,  Buenos  Aires; 
Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Sao  Paulo;  British  Guiana, 
.Georgetown,  Rose  Hall  (Corentyn) ;  Colombia,  Barran- 
quilla; Uruguay,  Montevideo;  Venezuela,  Caracas,  Ciudad 
Bolivar,  Maracaibo,  Puerto  Cabello. 

Most  if  not  all  of  the  banks  mentioned  have  correspon- 
dents or  agents  in  the  chief  cities  of  the  countries  where  they 
have  no  branches  and  some  have  connections  in  the  smaller 
cities. 

The  Irving  National  Bank,  Woolworth  Building,  New 
York,  has  correspondents  in  the  principal  cities  of  South 
America. 

The  Guaranty  Trust  Company,  140  Broadway,  New 
York,  is  affiliated  with  the  Mercantile  Bank  of  the  Americas 
and  has  other  correspondents. 


LEADING  BANKS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  465 

OTHER  IMPORTANT  BANKS  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Argentina:  Buenos  Aires,  Banco  de  la  Nacion  Argen- 
tina, with  1 8  branches  in  as  many  Argentine  cities,  Ernesto 
Tornquist  and  Company,  Banco  de  la  Provincia  de  Buenos 
Aires,  American  Bank  of  the  River  Plate;  La  Plata,  the 
Central  Bank  of  the  Provincia  de  Buenos  Aires,  which  has 
branches  in  many  cities  of  the  Province. 

Bolivia :  La  Paz,  Banco  de  la  Nacion  Boliviana,  branches 
in  Cochabamba,  Oruro,  Potosi,  Tarija,  Uyuni ;  Banco  Fran- 
cisco Argandona,  also  in  Cochabamba  and  Oruro;  Banco 
Mercantil,  also  in  Cochabamba,  Oruro,  Potosi,  Tarija, 
Tupiza,  Uyuni ;  Banco  Nacional  de  Bolivia,  branches  in 
Cochabamba,  Oruro,  Potosi,  Tupiza,  Uyuni. 

Brazil :  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Banco  do  Brasil,  with  branches 
in  most  of  the  Brazilian  cities,  Banco  Nacional  Brasileiro; 
Sao  Paulo,  Banco  Commercial  do  Estado  de  Sao  Paulo; 
Bahia,  Banco  de  Bahia;  Para,  Banco  de  Para;  Pernambuco, 
Banco  do  Recife;  Bello  Horizonte,  Banco  Hypothecario  e 
Agricola  de  Estado  de  Minas  Geraes ;  etc. 

Chile:  Santiago,  Banco  de  Chile,  branches  in  many 
cities;  Banco  Espanol  de  Chile  with  branches;  Banco  de 
A.  Edwards  y  Cia. ;  Valparaiso,  Banco  de  Chile  y  Argentina, 
branches  in  Punta  Arenas,  and  also  in  San  Julian  and  Santa 
Cruz,  Argentina. 

Colombia :  Bogota,  Banco  de  Bogota,  Banco  de  Colom- 
bia. These  banks  have  fewer  branches,  if  any,  than  the 
Bancos  de  la  Nacion  Argentina,  de  Brasil,  or  de  Chile, 
Medellin  has  the  Banco  de  la  Mutualidad,  Banco  Dugand, 
and  Banco  Lopez,  found  also  in  Bucaramanga,  and  in  other 
cities, 

Ecuador:  Guayaquil,  Banco  Comercial  y  Agricola, 
Banco  del  Ecuador,  Mercantile  Overseas  Corporation,  Juan 
Marcas  y  Cia,,  correspondent  of  the  Guaranty  Trust  Com- 
pany. 

Guiana :  British,  Georgetown,  Colonial  Bank  of  London 
(22  William  St.,  New  York),  branches  in  Henrietta  and 


466  APPENDIX  II 

New  Amsterdam;  Dutch,  Paramaribo,  De  Surinaamsche 
Bank;  French,  Cayenne,  Banque  de  la  Guyane. 

Peru:  Lima,  Banco  del  Peru  y  Londres,  branches  in 
most  of  the  Peruvian  cities,  Credito  Hipotecario  del  Peru. 

Paraguay:  Asuncion,  Banco  Mercantil  del  Paraguay, 
branches  in  Concepcion,  Encarnacion,  Pilar,  Villa  Rica; 
Banco  de  la  Republica,  branch  in  Encarnacion. 

Uruguay :  Montevideo,  Banco  de  la  Republica  Oriental 
del  Uruguay,  with  branches  in  many  cities  of  the  country. 

Venezuela:  Caracas,  Banco  de  Venezuela,  many 
branches ;  Banco  de  Caracas,  some  branches. 

OTHER  AMERICAN  BANKS 

with  facilities  for  South  American  Trade  are: 

New  York,  American  Exchange  National  Bank,  128 
Broadway,  Bank  of  New  York,  48  Wall  St.,  Battery  Park 
National  Bank  of  New  York,  2  Broadway,  Canadian  Bank 
of  Commerce,  16  Exchange  Place,  Lincoln  Trust  Company, 
7  Wall  St. 

Boston,  The  Merchants  National  Bank,  28  State  St. 

Chicago,  Central  Trust  Company  of  Illinois,  125  West 
Monroe  St.,  Great  Lakes  Trust  Company. 

Cincinnati,  The  Fifty-Third  National  Bank. 

Detroit,  The  Peoples  State  Bank,  Fort  &  Shelby  Sts. 

Philadelphia,  The  Philadelphia  National  Bank,  421 
Chestnut  St. 

Pittsburgh,  Mellon  National  Bank,  514  Smithfield  St 

San  Francisco,  The  Crocker  National  Bank. 

Additional  banking  information  may  be  found  in  the 
Exporters'  Encyclopaedia,  annual  edition;  in  Commercial 
Travelers'  Guide  to  Latin  America,  containing  lists  of  banks 
for  each  city;  and  in  the  Bankers'  Almanac  and  Year  Book, 
London,  annual,  with  complete  lists  of  banks  in  the  cities 
of  all  countries. 


APPENDIX  III 
STEAMSHIP  LINES  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA 

THE  NORTH  COAST 
Colombia:  Passenger  and  Freight  Lines 

NEW  YORK  to  Puerto  Colombia  and  Cartagena,  Caribbean 
Steamship  Company,  10  Bridge  St.,  weekly,  Five  Con- 
tinent Steamship  Company,  2  Stone  St.,  weekly,  United 
Fruit  Steamship  Company  Service,  17  Battery  Place, 
weekly,  also  to  Santa  Marta. 

BOSTON  to  Cartagena,  Puerto  Colombia,  Santa  Marta,  United 
Fruit  Company  Steamship  Service,  Long  Wharf. 

NEW  ORLEANS  to   Puerto   Colombia,   Pacific-Caribbean-Gulf 
Line,  630  Common  St.,  fortnightly;  Caribbean  Steam- 
ship Company,  Lykes  Bros.,  monthly. 
Grace  Line,  to  Colombian  ports,  monthly. 

Colombia:  Freight  Only 

NEW  YORK  to  Cartagena  and  Puerto  Colombia,  Tropical 
Steamship  Corporation,  44  Whitehall  St. 

SEATTLE  to  Cartagena  and  Puerto  Colombia,  Tropical  Steam- 
ship Pacific-Caribbean-Gulf  Line,  A.  M.  Gillespie,  Inc., 
Arctic  Building,  monthly. 

Venezuela:  Passengers  and  Freight 

YORK  to  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello,  Maracaibo,  Red 
"D"  Line,  82  Wall  St.,  weekly  to  La  Guaira,  fortnightly 
to  the  other  ports. 

To  Ciudad  Bolivar,  Trinidad  Line,  29  Broadway,  fort- 
nightly to  Port  of  Spain,  transshipment. 

467 


468  APPENDIX  III 

To  Curasao,  Puerto  Cabello,  La  Guaira,  Cumana,  Carupano, 
and  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad,  Royal  Netherlands  West 
India  Mail,  Punch,  Edye,  and  Company,  25  Broadway, 
fortnightly. 

NEW  ORLEANS  to  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello,  Maracaibo,  New 
Orleans    and    South    American    Steamship    Company, 
Queen  and  Crescent  Bldg.,  semi-monthly. 
Grace  Line  to  Venezuelan  ports,  monthly. 

Venezuela:  Freight  Only 

NEW  YORK  to  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello,  Maracaibo,  Carib- 
bean Steamship  Company,  10  Bridge  St.,  fortnightly. 

NEW  ORLEANS  to  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello,  Maracaibo, 
Caribbean  Steamship  Company,  Lykes  Bros.,  monthly. 

Guiana :  British,  Dutch,  and  French 
British  Guiana  Passengers  and  Freight 

NEW  YORK  to  Georgetown,  Quebec  Steamship  Company,  34 
Whitehall  St.,  every  10-14  days;  Trinidad  Line,  22 
Pearl  St.,  fortnightly;  Royal  Netherlands  West  India 
Mail,  monthly,  25  Broadway. 

NEW  YORK  to  Georgetown,  Paramaribo,  Cayenne,  Clyde 
Steamship  Company,  leave  Pier  44  North  River;  fort- 
nightly, freight  only. 

MOBILE  to  Georgetown,  Windward  Island  Line,  Passengers 
and  freight,  every  three  weeks. 

Dutch  and  French  Guiana :  Passengers  and  Freight 

NEW  YORK  to  Paramaribo,  Royal  Netherlands  West  India 
Mail  Line,  25  Broadway,  monthly. 

NEW  YORK  to  Cayenne,  Trinidad  Line,  22  Pearl  St.,  trans- 
shipment at  Port  of  Spain. 

THE  WEST  COAST 

Through  Lines  to  Chile  by  Panama  Canal,  and  from  Pacific 
Ports. 


STEAMSHIP  LINES  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA  469 

Passengers  and  Freight 

NEW  YORK:  Grace  Line,  10  Hanover  Square,  fortnightly 
to  Callao  and  Mollendo,  Peru;  Arica,  Iquique,  Anto- 
fagasta,  Valparaiso,  Talcahuano,  Chile;  20  days  to  Val- 
paraiso. 

Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  Sanderson  and  Son, 
26  Broadway,  monthly  to  Callao,  Mollendo,  Peru ;  Arica, 
Iquique,  Antofagasta,  Valparaiso,  Chile;  20  days;  a  line 
from  Liverpool  to  same  ports,  also  a  line  every  three 
weeks  from  Arica  to  Iquique,  Antofagasta,  Valparaiso, 
Talcahuano,  Coronel,  Corral,  Puerto  Montt,  Punta 
Arenas. 

Compania  sud  Americana  de  Vapores,  Wessel,  Duval,  and 
Company,  25  Broad  St.,  monthly  to  Guayaquil,  Ecuador, 
Salaverry,  Callao,  Mollendo,  Peru ;  Arica,  Iquique,  Anto- 
fagasta, Valparaiso,  Chile. 

SEATTLE  AND  SAN  FRANCISCO:  Grace  Line,  Hoge  Building, 
Seattle,  monthly  to  Talara,  Paita,  Salaverry,  Callao, 
Pisco,  Mollendo,  Peru;  Arica,  Iquique,  Antofagasta, 
Valparaiso,  Chile ;  also  to  Ecuador. 

PORTLAND  AND  SAN  FRANCISCO:  South  American  Line,  to 
Guayaquil,  Ecuador;  Talara,  Callao,  Mollendo,  Peru; 
Antofagasta,  Chile. 

Freight  Only 

NEW  YORK  to  Peru  and  Chile,  New  York  and  Isthmian  Steam- 
ship Lines,  J.  W.  Ryan,  39  Cortland  St.,  monthly. 
West  Coast  Line,  Wessel,  Duval,  and  Company,  25  Broad 
St.,  monthly  or  oftener  to  Paita,  Eten,  Salaverry,  Callao, 
Pisco,  Mollendo,  Peru;  Arica,  Iquique,  Antofagasta, 
Taltal,  Chanaral,  Coquimbo,  Valparaiso,  Talcahuano, 
Chile. 

Grace  Line,  Paita,  Eten,  Salaverry,  Callao,  Coquimbo,  Val- 
paraiso, Talcahuano,  monthly. 


470  APPENDIX  III 

Also  from  Baltimore,  Clarence  Cottman  Company,  accord- 
ing to  demand. 

BALTIMORE  to  Peru  and  Chile,  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany, Furness,  Withy,  and  Company,  19  South  St., 
monthly. 

NEW  ORLEANS  to  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Chile,  New  Orleans 
and  South  American  Steamship  Line  Company,  Queen 
and  Crescent  Bldg.,  monthly  to  Guayaquil,  Ecuador, 
Callao,  Mollendo,  Peru;  Arica,  Iquique,  Antofagasta, 
Valparaiso,  Chile. 
Grace  Line,  monthly  to  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Chile. 

SEATTLE,  PORTLAND,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  AND  SAN  PEDRO  to 
Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Chile,  General  Steamship 
Corporation,  Colman  Bldg.,  Seattle,  every  20  days  to 
Buenaventura,  Colombia;  Guayaquil,  Ecuador;  Paita, 
Callao,  Mollendo,  Peru ;  Arica,  Antofagasta,  Valparaiso, 
Chile. 

SEATTLE  to  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Chile,  Rolph  Steamship  Com- 
pany, Hind,  Rolph  and  Company,  Henry  Building, 
monthly  to  Buenaventura,  Colombia;  Bahia,  Manta, 
Guayaquil,  Ecuador;  Arica,  Iquique,  Antofagasta,  Val- 
paraiso, Chile. 

PORTLAND,  OREGON,  AND  SAN  FRANCISCO  to  Peru  and  Chile, 
Toyo  Kisen  Kaisha  Oregon  Pacific  Company,  Wilcox 
Bldg.,  monthly  to  Callao,  Mollendo,  Peru ;  Arica,  Iquique, 
Valparaiso,  Chile. 

Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Peru 

NEW  YORK  to  Cartagena,  Buenaventura,  Guayaquil,  Paita, 
Eten,  Pimentel,  Pacasmayo,  and  Salaverry,  every  three 
weeks ;  freight  only,  Grace  Line,  10  Hanover  Square. 

Colombia  and  Ecuador 

NEW  YORK  :  Pacific  Line  every  three  weeks  to  Buenaventura, 
Colombia;  Esmeraldas,  Bahia,  Manta,  Guayaquil, 
Ecuador;  freight. 


STEAMSHIP  LINES  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA  471 

Colombia 

NEW  YORK  to  Buenventura  and  Tumaco,  Caribbean  Steamship 
Company,  10  Bridge  St.,  passengers  and  freight,  monthly. 

Other  Lines  with  Transshipment  at  Colon 

NEW  YORK  to  Colon,  Panama  Railroad  Steamship  Line,  24 
State  St.,  weekly,  passengers  and  freight;  United  Fruit 
Company  Steamship  Service,  twice  a  week  to  Colon, 
passengers  and  freight ;  other  service  to  Colon  from  Bos- 
ton and  New  Orleans. 

West  Coast  Lines  from  Colon  and  Panama 

PACIFIC  STEAM  NAVIGATION,  26  Broadway,  New  York,  fort- 
nightly, to  Paita,  Pimentel,  Eten,  Pacasmayo,  Salaverry, 
Callao,  Cerro  Azul,  Tambo  de  Mora,  Pisco,  Lomas, 
Chala,  Mollendo,  Peru;  Arica,  Iquique,  Antofagasta, 
Coquimbo,  Valparaiso,  Talcahuano,  Penco,  Tome,  Coro- 
nel,  Chile;  another  line  fortnightly  to  Buenaventura, 
Tumaco,  Colombia;  Esmeraldas,  Bahia  de  Caraquez, 
Manta,  Cayo,  Machalilla,  Manglar  Alto,  Ballenita,  P. 
Bolivar,  Guayaquil,  Ecuador. 

COMPANIA  PERUANA  DE  VAPORES  (Peruvian  Line),  32  Broad- 
way, New  York,  every  ten  days  to  Guayaquil,  Ecuador; 
Paita,  Pimentel,  Eten,  Pacasmayo,  Salaverry,  Chimbote, 
Samanco,  Casma,  Callao,  Cerro  Azul,  Tambo  de  Mora, 
Pisco,  Lomas,  Chala,  Mollendo,  Ilo,  Peru. 

COMPANIA  SUD  AMERICANA  DE  VAPORES,  25  Broad  St.,  New 
York,  fortnightly  to  Guayaquil,  Ecuador,  and  primary 
ports  of  Peru  and  Chile ;  and  by  transfer  to  caletero  boats 
serving  Paita,  Pimentel,  Eten,  Pacasmayo,  Salaverry, 
Chimbote,  Samanco,  Casma,  Huarmey,  Supe,  Huacho, 
Callao,  Cerro  Azul,  Tambo  de  Mora,  Pisco,  Lomas, 
Chala,  Mollendo,  Ilo,  Peru;  Arica,  Pisagua,  Caleta 
Buena,  Iquique,  Tocopilia,  Gatico,  Antofagasta,  Taltal, 


472  APPENDIX  III 

Chafiaral,  Caldera,  Huasco,  Coquimbo,  Valparaiso,  Tal- 
cahuno,  Penco,  Tome,  Coronel,  Lota,  Chile. 
THE  COLOMBIAN  MARITIME  COMPANY  serves  Buenaventura 
and  Tumaco,  Colombia. 

THE  EAST  COAST 
Lines  to  Brazil,  Uruguay,  Argentina 

From  New  York,  Passenger  and  Freight 

Lamport  and -Holt  Line,  42  Broadway,  fortnightly  to  Pernam- 
buco,  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
Brazil;  Montevideo,  Uruguay;  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina. 

Munson  Steamship  Line,  67  Wall  St.,  fortnightly  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Brazil;  Montevideo,  Buenos  Aires. 

Lloyd  Brasileiro,  44  Whitehall  St.,  fortnightly  to  Pernam- 
buco,  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Brazil. 

Booth  Steamship  Company,  17  Battery  Place,  monthly  or 
oftener  to  Para,  Manaos  (transshipment  for  Iquitos, 
Peru),  Maranhao,  Ceara,  Parnahyba,  Maceio,  Pernam- 
buco,  Cabedello,  Natal ;  also  semi-monthly  service  to  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  Santos,  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  with  calls 
when  required  at  Bahia,  Victoria,  Paranagua,  Florian- 
opolis,  and  Sao  Francisco. 

Norton  Line,  Norton,  Lilly,  and  Company,  26  Beaver  St.,  pas- 
senger and  freight  service  expected  bi-monthly  to  Monte- 
video and  Buenos  Aires ;  sometimes  to  Rosario.  Freight 
service  semi-monthly  to  Montevideo,  Buenos  Aires, 
Rosario,  occasionally  to  Santa  Fe. 

The  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company  has  services  from 
Liverpool  and  from  Southampton  to  Brazil,  Uruguay, 
and  Argentina ;  also  a  Line  around  South  America  by 
the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  through  the  Panama 
Canal,  and  vice  versa,  calling  at  the  principal  East  and 
West  Coast  ports. 


STEAMSHIP  LINES  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA  473 

From  New  York,  Freight  Only 

Munson  Line,  67  Wall  St.,  fortnightly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Santos,  Montevideo,  Buenos  Aires. 

Donald  Line,  Oriental  Navigation  Company,  39  Broadway, 
to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Montevideo,  La  Plata, 
Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 

Ward  Line,  New  York  and  Cuba  Mail  Steamship  Company, 
foot  of  Wall  St.,  fortnightly  to  Para,  Maranhao,  Ceara, 
Natal,  Cabedello,  Pernambuco,  Maceio,  Bahia,  Monte- 
video, La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 

Prince  Line,  Furness,  Withy  and  Company,  34  Whitehall 
St.,  fortnightly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul,  Porto  Alegre,  Pelotas,  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires, 
Rosario. 

Commercial  South  American  Line,  Moore  and  McCormack, 
Inc.,  5  Broadway,  monthly  to  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Paranagua,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
Montevideo,  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 

National  Line,  National  Steamship  Lines,  n  Broadway, 
monthly  to  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  San- 
tos, La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 

New  York  and  Argentine  Steamship  Company,  50  Broad- 
way, fortnightly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Buenos 
Aires. 

North  and  South  Line,  P.  Kleppe  and  Company,  n  Broad- 
way, monthly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Buenos  Aires. 

To  Brazil  Only 

United  States  and  Brazil  Steamship  Line,  Arthur  Lewis,  39 
Cortlandt  St.,  fortnightly  to  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Santos. 

Prince  Line,  34  Whitehall  St.,  monthly  to  Para,  Pernam- 
buco, Bahia. 

Lamport  and  Holt  Line,  42  Broadway,  monthly  to  Para, 


474  APPENDIX  III 

Maranhao,    Ceara,    Natal,    Cabedello,    Pernambuco, 
Maceio,  Bahia. 

Ward  Line,  foot  of  Wall  St.,  monthly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
Santos. 


Argentina  and  Uruguay 

Barber  Steamship  Line,  17  Battery  Place,  fortnightly  to 
Montevideo,  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 


Argentina  Only 

Houston  Line,  17  Battery  Place,  fortnightly  to  La  Plata, 

Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 
Kerr  Steamship  Company,  44  Beaver  St.,  semi-monthly  to 

Argentine  ports. 
American  and  Rio  Plata  Line,  Houlder,  Weir  and  Boyd,  24 

State  St.,  monthly  to  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 
Grace  Line,  10  Hanover  Square,  monthly  to  Bahia  Blanca, 

Puerto  Madryn ;  also  to  Punta  Arenas,  Corral,  and  Coro- 

nel,  Chile,  returning  by  West  Coast. 


BALTIMORE:  New  York  and  Argentine  Steamship  Company, 
W.  R.  Wiest  and  Company,  Marine  Bank  Bldg.,  monthly 
to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires. 
Green  Star  Line,  17  South  St.,  monthly  to  Bahia,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Santos,  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 

BOSTON:  Emery  Line,  114  State  St.,  monthly  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Santos,  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 

BRUNSWICK,  GA.:  "Sam  Line,"  Strachan  Shipping  Company, 
monthly  to  Pernambuco,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Buenos 
Aires. 


STEAMSHIP  LINES  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA  475 

CHARLESTON:  "Sam  Line,"  The  Carolina  Company,  monthly 
to  Pernambuco,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Buenos  Aires. 

JACKSONVILLE:  "Sam  Line,"  Strachan  Shipping  Company, 
monthly  to  Pernambuco,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Buenos 
Aires. 

MOBILE:  Munson  Steamship  Line,  67  Wall  St.,  New  York, 
fortnightly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Montevideo, 
Buenos  Aires. 

NEW  ORLEANS  :  Lamport  and  Holt  Line,  Alfred  Le  Blanc,  833 
Gravier  St.,  monthly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Buenos 
Aires,  Rosario,  and  up-river  ports. 

Ward  Line,  New  York  and  Cuba  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
pany, Whitney,  Central  Bldg.,  monthly  to  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro, Santos,  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 
Delta  Line,  Mississippi  Shipping  Company,  Queen  and 
Crescent  Bldg.,  monthly  or  oftener  to  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  Santos. 

Isthmian  Steamship  Lines,  Norton,  Lilly  and  Company, 
Canal-Commercial  Bldg.,  monthly  to  Buenos  Aires 
direct ;  by  transshipment  to  Rosario. 

PHILADELPHIA:  I.  F.  C.  Line,  International  Freight  Corpora- 
tion, Lafayette  Bldg.,  Philadelphia,  170  Broadway,  New 
York,  semi-monthly  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  La  Plata, 
Buenos  Aires. 

SAVANNAH:  "Sam  Line,"  South  Atlantic  Maritime  Corpora- 
tion, 7  East  Bay  St.,  monthly  to  Pernambuco,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Santos,  Buenos  Aires. 

WILMINGTON,  North  Carolina :  "Sam  Line,"  Alexander  Sprunt 
and  Son,  Inc.,  monthly  to  Pernambuco,  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Santos,  Buenos  Aires. 

SEATTLE  :  Swayne  and  Holt  Line,  A.  M.  Gillespie,  Inc.,  Arctic 
Bldg.,  monthly  to  La  Plata,  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario. 

SAN  FRANCISCO  to  East  Coast  via  Straits  of  Magellan:  Pacific- 
Argentine-Brazil  Line,  monthly  to  Santos,  Montevideo, 
Buenos  Aires;  if  sufficient  freight,  Bahia  Blanca  and 
Rosario, 


476  APPENDIX  III 

Sailings  of  most  of  the  Freight  Lines  are  liable  to  some 
irregularity  as  to  dates  of  departure  and  ports  of  call,  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  freight  offered. 

Full  information  as  to  Steamship  Lines  of  the  United  States 
to  foreign  ports  may  be  found  in  the  Exporters'  Encyclopedia, 
annual  editions,  with  Supplementary  Bulletins. 

The  Commercial  Travelers'  Guide  to  Latin  America  (Fil- 
singer)  gives  also  European  Steamship  Lines  to  South 
America. 


PUBLICATIONS 

Of  value  to  persons  interested  in  South  American  Trade. 

The  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  has  published  many  important  pamphlets  and  a  few 
books.  A  list  of  the  publications  available,  with  their  prices, 
may  be  obtained  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington,  or  from  the  District 
offices  of  the  Bureau,  in  New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
New  Orleans,  San  Francisco,  Seattle.  Besides  the  ordinary 
consular  reports,  the  Bureau  offers  publications  in  the  follow- 
ing groups:  Special  Agent  Series,  comprising  monographs  on 
special  industries,  countries,  and  phases  of  commerce;  Special 
Consular  Reports ;  Foreign  Tariff  Series ;  Industrial  Standards  ; 
and  Miscellaneous  Series. 

PERIODICALS 

PAN  AMERICAN  BULLETIN,  Pan  American  Union,  Washington. 

THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN,  310  Lexington  Ave.,  New  York. 

THE  PAN  AMERICAN  MAGAZINE,  70  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York. 

PAN  AMERICAN  REVIEW,  Pan  American  Society  of  the  United 
States,  15  Broad  St.,  New  York. 

COMMERCIAL  AMERICA,  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

WEEKLY  EXPORT  BULLETIN,  Philadelphia  Commercial  Mu- 
seum, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

EXPORT  AMERICAN  INDUSTRIES,  60  Church  St.,  New  York. 

477 


478  APPENDIX  IV 

AMERICAN  EXPORTER,  Johnston  Export  Publishing  Company, 
370  Seventh  Ave.,  New  York. 

DUN'S  INTERNATIONAL  REVIEW,  290  Broadway,  New  York. 

THE  WORLD'S  MARKETS,  290  Broadway,  New  York. 

EXPORT  AND  SHIPPING  JOURNAL,  Board  of  Trade  Bldg.,  Port- 
land, Ore. 

EXPORT  NEWS,  16  Beaver  St.,  New  York. 

EXPORT  TRADE,  280  Broadway,  New  York. 

EXPORTERS'  STANDARD,  15  Park  Row,  New  York. 

ELECTRICAL  EXPORTER,  114  Liberty  St.,  New  York. 

EXPORT  RECORDER  OF  SHOE  AND  LEATHER  INDUSTRY,  207  South 
St.,  Boston. 

IMPORTERS'  GUIDE,  47  Broadway,  New  York. 

INTERNATIONAL  CINEMA  TRADE  REVIEW,  1587  Broadway,  New 
York. 

INTERNATIONAL  TRADE  DEVELOPER,  168  Michigan  Ave.,  Chi- 
cago. 

IRON  AGE  CATALOGUE  OF  AMERICAN  EXPORTS,  239  West  39th 
St.,  New  York. 

PACIFIC  PORTS,  626  Central  Bldg.,  Seattle,  Wash. 

PAN  PACIFIC,  618  Mission  St.,  San  Francisco,  Calif. 

House  Organs 

AMERICAN  EXPORT  MONTHLY,  Arkell  &  Douglas,  44  Whitehall 

St.,  New  York. 
EXPORT  WORLD  AND  HERALD,  American  Trading  Company,  25 

Broad  St.,  New  York. 
EXPORTERS'  AND  IMPORTERS'  JOURNAL,  Henry  W.  Peabody  & 

Company,  17  State  St.,  New  York. 
FOREIGN  TRADE  BULLETIN,  American  Express  Company,  65 

Broadway,  New  York. 
Du  PONT  PRODUCTS,  Du  Pont  de  Nemours  Export  Company, 

120  Broadway,  New  York. 
GRAPHIC  ARTS,  Parsons  &  Whittemore,  799  Broadway,  New 

York. 


PUBLICATIONS  479 

THE  GRACE  LOG,  W.  R.  Grace  &  Company,  7  Hanover  Square, 
New  York. 

PERIODICALS  IN  SPANISH  OR  PORTUGUESE 

AMERICA,  National  Association  of  Manufacturers,  60  Church 

St.,  New  York. 

AMERICAN  LEATHER,  41  Park  Row,  New  York. 
AUTOMOTIVE  EXPORTER,  448  West  37th  St.,  New  York. 
BOOT  AND  SHOE  RECORDER,  207  South  St.,  Boston. 
CINE  MUNDIAL,  516  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York. 
DUN'S  INTERNATIONAL  REVIEW,  290  Broadway,  New  York. 
EL  ARTE  TIPOGRAFICO,  32  Burling  Slip,  New  York. 
EL  AUTOMOVIL  AMERICANO,  239  West  39th  St.,  New  York. 
EL  CAMPO  INTERNATIONAL,  2  West  45th  St.,  New  York. 
EL  COMERCIO,  114  Liberty  St.,  New  York. 
EL  ESCRITORIO,  32  Burling  Slip,  New  York. 
EL  INDICADOR  MERCANTIL,  1328  Broadway,  New  York. 
EL  INGENIERO  Y  CONTRATISTA,  161  Water  St.,  New  York. 
EL  MERCURIO,  635  Common  St.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
EL  MUNDO  AZUCARERO,  407  Carondelet  St.,  New   Orleans, 

La. 

EL  NORTE  AMERICANO,  310  Lexington  Ave.,  New  York. 
EL  REPORTER  AMERICANO  (Shoe  and  Leather),  166  Essex  St., 

Boston. 
EMPRESA,  John  W.  Thome  &  Company,  165  Broadway,  New 

York. 

EXPORTADOR  AMERICANO,  370  Seventh  Ave.,  New  York. 
FERRETERIA,  Hurt  Bldg.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
GEYERS'  REVISTA  INTERNATIONAL  de  Papeleria,  etc.,  175  Fifth 

Ave.,  New  York. 
INGENIERIA  INTERNACIONAL,  Tenth  Ave.,  at  36th  St.,  New 

York. 

LA  HACIENDA,  775  Main  St.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
LA  INDUSTRIA,  114  Liberty  St.,  New  York. 
O  ENGENHEIRO  E  EMPREITEIRO,  161  Water  St.,  New  York. 


480  APPENDIX  IV 

OFFICE  APPLIANCE  EXPORTER,  417  South  Dearborn  St.,  Chi- 
cago. 

PICTORIAL  REVIEW,  222  West  39th  St.,  New  York. 

REVISTA  AMERICANO  FARMACIA  Y  MEDECINA,  66  West  Broad- 
way, New  York. 

VOGUE,  19  West  44th  St.,  New  York. 

All  the  above  publications  are  in  Spanish  except  O  Engen- 
heiro,  which  is  in  Portuguese;  La  Hacienda  and  Dun's  Inter- 
national Review  have  both  Portuguese  and  Spanish  Editions. 

The  Pan  American  Bulletin  has  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
editions,  differing  from  the  English  edition. 


SOME  USEFUL  BOOKS 
Of  fairly  recent  date 

THE  COMMERCIAL  TRAVELERS'  GUIDE  TO  LATIN  AMERICA 
(with  separate  maps),  by  E.  B.  Filsinger.  No.  89  of  the 
Miscellaneous  Series  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Foreign 
Commerce,  1920,  592  p.,  $1.25,  contains  a  vast  amount 
of  detailed  information  as  to  routes  of  travel  and  cities, 
large  and  small.  With  the  correction  of  some  obvious 
errors  now  proceeding  in  a  revision,  the  second  edition 
will  be  of  immense  value  to  the  persons  for  whom  it  is 
designed,  and  highly  useful  in  the  home  office.  The 
maps,  included  in  the  low  price,  perform  a  genuine  and 
needed  service,  though  not  entirely  accurate. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LATIN  AMERICA  :  Marion  Wilcox  and  G.  E. 
Rines,  editors,  New  York,  887  p.  $10. 

THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TOUR,  A  Guide,  by  Annie  S.  Peck. 
George  H.  Doran  Company,  New  York,  1913,  '16,  '20. 
Pronounced  in  1916  by  the  Director  of  Commerce  and 
Industry  of  Argentina,  the  best  and  most  accurate  book 
on  South  America  that  he  had  seen.  400  p.  $3.00. 


PUBLICATIONS  481 

A  GUIDE  TO  SOUTH  AMERICA,  by  W.  A.  Hirst.    MacMillan 

Company,  London,  1915.    340  p.    $1.75. 
THE  GREAT  SOUTH  LAND,  The  River  Plate  and   Southern 

Brazil  of  To-day,  by  W.  H.  Koebel.    Dodd,  Mead  &  Co., 

1920.    314  p.    $4.50. 
PAN  AMERICAN  COMMERCIAL  CONGRESS,  Proceedings,   1919. 

Pan  American  Union,  Washington.    $3.00. 
ANGLO  SOUTH  AMERICAN  HANDBOOK,  by  W.  H.  Koebel,  1921. 

Macmillan  Co.     $7.50. 
THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  YEAR  BOOK  AND  DIRECTORY,   1915. 

Louis  Cassier  Co.,  London  (International  Book  Co.,  New 

York).    600  p.    $8.50. 
LATIN  AMERICAN  YEAR  BOOK  FOR  INVESTORS  AND  MERCHANTS. 

Criterion  Newspaper  Syndicate,  New  York.    $3.00. 
THE  STATESMAN'S  YEAR  BOOK.    Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 
SOUTH  AMERICA,  PAST  AND  PRESENT,  by  L.  C.  Bollo,  1919, 

Whitehall  Bldg.,  New  York.    218  p.    $3.00. 
THE  STATES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA,  by  Charles  Domville-Fife. 

Macmillan   Co.,   New  York,   1920.     Concise,  unusually 

accurate  and  valuable. 
GLIMPSES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA,  by  F.  A.  Sherwood.     Century 

Co.,  1920.    406  p.    $4.00. 
UNDERSTANDING  SOUTH  AMERICA,  by  C.  S.  Cooper.    Geo.  H. 

Doran  Co.,  1918.    426  p.     $2.50. 
THE  GULF  OF  MISUNDERSTANDING,  by  Tancredo   Pinochet. 

Boni  &  Liveright,  New  York,  1920.    275  p.    $2.50. 
MEN,  MANNERS  AND  MORALS,  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA,  by  J.  O. 

Bland.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1920.    $4.00. 
UNITED  STATES  AND  LATIN  AMERICA.     Doubleday,  Page  & 

Co.    $2.50. 

BOOKS  ON  INDIVIDUAL  COUNTRIES 
Argentina 

ARGENTINA  Y  sus  GRANDEZAS  (with  map),  by  Blasco  Ibanez. 
E.  P.  Button,  1921.    $12.00. 


482  APPENDIX  IV 

ARGENTINA,  by  G.  J.  Mills.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1914.  209  p. 
$3.00.  Good  handbook. 

ARGENTINA  AND  URUGUAY,  by  Gordon  Ross.  Macmillan  Co., 
1916.  308  p.  $4.25. 

ARGENTINA  IN  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY,  by  A.  B.  Martinez 
and  M.  Lewandowski.  Scribner,  1915. 

THE  ARGENTINE  YEAR  BOOK.  R.  Grant  &  Co.,  Buenos  Aires, 
loth  ed.,  1919.  Donnell  &  Palmer,  Whitehall  Bldg.,  New 
York.  $4.50.  Gives  commercial  laws,  regulations,  sta- 
tistics, information  on  trade  and  industry,  etc. 

FIVE  MONTHS  IN  THE  ARGENTINE  FROM  A  WOMAN'S  POINT  OF 
VIEW,  by  K.  S.  Dreier.  F.  F.  Sherman,  1920.  $3.50. 

BAEDEKER  OF  THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  by  A.  B.  Martinez. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC  IN 
THE  LAST  FIFTY  YEARS.  E.  Tornquist  &  Co.,  Buenos 
Aires,  1919.  Pamphlet,  328  p.  Free. 

Bolivia 

BOLIVIA:  ITS  PEOPLE  AND  ITS  RESOURCES,  by  Paul  Walle. 
Scribner,  1914.  407  p.  $4.50. 

GUIA  GENERAL  DE  BOLIVIA  ;  Commercial,  Industrial,  etc.,  1918, 
by  R.  and  V.  Heredia.  Imprenta  Artistica,  La  Paz,  Bo- 
livia. 1959  p. 

REPORT  ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  COMMERCIAL  RELATIONS 
BETWEEN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  BOLIVIA,  by  J.  L. 
Tejada,  Second  Pan  American  Financial  Congress,  Pan 
American  Union,  Washington,  1920.  55  p.  Free. 

Brazil 

BRAZIL,  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW,  by  L.  E.  Elliott.    Macmillan 

Co.,  1917.    338  p.    $2.50.    Good. 
BRAZIL  IN  1919,  by  J.  C.  Oakenfull,  Commission  of  Economic 

Expansion   of    Brazil,   U.    S.    Organization    Office,    50 

Church  St.,  New  York.    Important. 


PUBLICATIONS  483 

ECONOMIC  NOTES  ON  BRAZIL,  by  I.  S.  Lopes,  Ministry  of  Agri- 
culture, Industry,  and  Commerce,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  1919. 
103  p. 

NORTH  BRAZIL,  by  E.  C.  Buley.  D.  Appleton,  1914.  216  p. 
$3.00. 

SOUTH  BRAZIL,  by  E.  C.  Buley.  D.  Appleton,  1914.  216  p. 
$3.00. 

THE  SEA  AND  THE  JUNGLE,  by  H.  M.  Tomlinson.  E.  P. 
Button,  1920.  $5.00.  Delightful. 

Chile 

CHILE  INDUSTRIAL,  by  P.  L.  Gonzalez,  Soc.  Imprenta  y  Lito- 
grafia  Universe,  Santiago,  Chile,  1919.  244  p. 

CHILE,  ITS  LAND  AND  PEOPLE,  by  F.  J.  G.  Maitland.  Francis 
Griffiths,  London,  1914.  293  p.  $2.75. 

CHILE,  by  G.  J.  Mills.  D.  Appleton.  193  p.  $3.00.  A  prac- 
tical handbook. 

Colombia 

BLUE  BOOK  OF  COLOMBIA,  Colombian  Consulate,  17  Battery 

Place,  New  York,  1918.     English  and  Spanish.     725  p. 

$15.00.    Varied  and  valuable  information. 
COLOMBIA,  by  P.  J.  Eder.    Scribner,  1917.    312  p.    $4.50. 
COLOMBIA,  by  V.  Levine.    D.  Appleton,  1914.    220  p.    $3.00. 
COMERCIO  EXTERIOR  DE  LA  REPUBLICA  DE    COLOMBIA;    por 

Direccion   General   de  Estadistica,   Imprenta  Nacional, 

Bogota,  1919.    498  p. 

Ecuador 
ECUADOR,  by  C.  R.  Enock.    Scribner,  1914.    375  p.    $4.50. 

The  Guianas 

BRITISH,  DUTCH,  AND  FRENCH  GUIANA,  by  J.  Rodway.  Scrib- 
ner, 1912.  318  p.  $4.50. 


484  APPENDIX  IV 

BRITISH  GUIANA  COMMERCIAL  HANDBOOK,  compiled  by  Comp- 
troller of  Customs.  The  Argosy  Co.,  Georgetown,  B.  G., 
1920.  36  cents. 

Paraguay 
PARAGUAY,  by  W.  H.  Koebel.    Scribner,  1917.    348  p.    $4.50. 

Peru 

PERU,  by  E.  C.  Vivian,  D.  Appleton,  1914.  235  p.  $3.00. 
Good  handbook. 

URUGUAY 
URUGUAY,  by  W.  H.  Koebel.    Scribner,  1911.    350  p.    $4.50. 

VENEZUELA 

VENEZUELA,  by  L.  V.  Dalton.  T.  Fisher  Unwin,  London,  1918. 
320  p.  $4.50. 


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Pan  American  Union  and  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  Commerce. 

BOOKS  ON  FOREIGN  TRADE 

AMERICAN  BUSINESS  IN  WORLD'S  MARKETS,  by  J.  T.  M.  Moore. 

Geo.  H.  Doran  Co.,  1919.    320  p.    $2.00. 
AMERICAN  FOREIGN  TRADE,  Charles  M.  Pepper.    Century  Co., 

1919-    350  P-    $2.50. 
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BOOK,  300  p.   $3.00. 
EXPORT  TRADE  DIRECTORY,  Johnston  Export  Publishing  Co., 

New  York,  Annual.    $10.00. 
EXPORTERS'  ENCYCLOPEDIA,  Exporters'  Encyclopedia  Co.,  280 

Broadway,    New   York.     Annual.     $15.00.     Necessary 

Book  of  Reference  with  supplementary  bulletins. 


PUBLICATIONS  485 

EXPORTING  TO  LATIN  AMERICA,  by  E.  B.  Filsinger.  D.  Apple- 
ton,  1916.  565  p.  $3.25.  Comprehensive  and  valuable. 

GETTING  TOGETHER  WITH  LATIN  AMERICA,  by  A.  Hyatt  Ver- 
rill.  E.  P.  Button,  1918.  $2.00. 

INSTRUCTION  BOOK  FOR  EXPORT  PACKING  OF  ENGINEER  MA- 
TERIAL, Engineer  Corps,  U.  S.  Army,  Washington.  63  p. 
Free;  important. 

NATIONAL  FOREIGN  TRADE  CONVENTIONS,  PROCEEDINGS  OF. 
Yearly,  1914-21  Valuable  addresses,  National  Foreign 
Trade  Council,  India  House,  New  York.  $2.00  each. 

PAN  AMERICAN  COMMERCE.  Report  of  Pan  American  Com- 
mercial Conference,  June,  1919;  Pan  American  Union, 
Washington,  1919.  473  p.  $3.00. 

PRACTICAL  EXPORTING,  by  B.  Olney  Hough.  Johnston  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  New  York,  4th  ed.,  1919.  529  p.  $5.00. 
Useful  book  by  a  recognized  authority. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  FOREIGN  TRADE,  by  Norbert  L.  Savay.  Ronald 
Press,  New  York,  1919.  495  p.  $4.00. 

SELLING  LATIN  AMERICA,  by  W.  E.  Aughinbaugh.  Small, 
Maynard  &  Co.,  Boston,  1915.  408  p.  $2.00. 

ADVERTISING  FOR  FOREIGN  TRADE,  by  W.  E.  Aughinbaugh, 
Foreign  Editor  N.  Y.  Commercial.  Century  Co.,  New 
York,  1921.  300  p.  $3.00. 

SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  TRADE  CONDITIONS  OF  TO- 
DAY, by  A.  Hyatt  Verrill.  Dodd,  Mead,  1919.  $1.50. 

THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  INTERNATIONAL  COMMERCE,  by  A. 
J.  Wolfe  International  Book  Co.,  New  York,  1919.  548 
p.  $5.00.  Text  Book  of  import,  export,  and  banking 
practice. 

TRADING  WITH  LATIN  AMERICA,  by  E.  B.  Filsinger,  Irving 
National  Bank,  New  York,  1917,  1919.  186  p. 

On  Banking 

ACCEPTANCE  CORPORATIONS,  and  other  pamphlets,  issued  by 
the  Acceptance  Council,  in  Broadway,  New  York,  1919. 


486  APPENDIX  IV 

ACCEPTANCES:  Other  pamphlets  on  this  subject  issued  by  the 
American  Exchange  Bank,  N.  Y.,  1918,  79  p. ;  by  Guar- 
anty Trust  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1918,  72  p.;  by  National  City 
Bank,  N.  Y.,  1918,  56  p.;  by  Merchants  and  Metals 
National  Bank,  N.  Y.,  1918,  50  p.;  Trade  Acceptance 
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millan  Co.,  1917  (reprint  1920).  219  p.  $1.25. 

FOREIGN  EXCHANGE;  Theory  and  Practice,  by  Thomas  York. 
Ronald  Press,  N.  Y.,  1920.  $2.50. 

On  Commodities 

MINERAL  DEPOSITS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA,  by  Miller  and  Singe- 
wald.  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1919.  598  p. 
$5.00. 

COCONUTS,  KERNELS,  CACAO,  AND  EDIBLE  VEGETABLE  OILS 
AND  SEEDS  OF  COMMERCE;  a  practical  handbook  by  H. 
O.  Newland.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  Phila.,  1919.  in  p. 
$2.50. 

PITMAN'S  COMMERCIAL  COMMODITIES  AND  INDUSTRIES;  a 
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Coffee,  etc.  Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons,  London  and  N.  Y. 

WORLD'S  FOOD  RESOURCES,  by  J.  Russell  Smith.  Henry  Holt 
&  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1919.  634  p.  $3.50. 

WHAT  BRAZIL  BUYS  AND  SELLS,  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  In- 
dustry, and  Commerce,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  1918.  95  p. 


PUBLICATIONS  487 

On  Shipping 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  GREAT  WAR  UPON  SHIPPING,  by  J.  Rus- 
sell Smith.  Oxford  Univ.  Press,  N.  Y.,  1919.  357  p. 

OCEAN  STEAMSHIP  TRAFFIC  MANAGEMENT,  by  G.  G.  Huebner. 
D.  Appleton,  1920.  273  p.  $3.00.  Appleton  Shipping 
Series.  Other  volumes  to  appear. 

PORTS  AND  TERMINAL  FACILITIES,  by  R.  S.  MacElwee. 
McGraw-Hill  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1918.  $3.00. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  OCEAN  TRANSPORTATION,  by  E.  R.  Johnson  and 
G.  G.  Huebner.  D.  Appleton,  1918.  $2.75. 

SHIPPING'S  SHARE  IN  FOREIGN  TRADE,  Fundamentals  of 
Ocean  Transportation.  Guaranty  Trust  Co.,  1919.  30  p. 
Free. 

Geographies,  Maps,  etc. 

COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY,  by  G.  G.  Chisholm.  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  London  and  New  York,  1918,  8th  ed. 
666  p.  $7.50. 

SOUTH  AMERICA,  a  Geography  Reader,  by  Israel  Bowman. 

Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1915.    354  p.    75  cents. 

SOUTH  AMERICA,  by  N.  B.  Allen.    Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  1918. 

413  p.    96  cents. 

ATLAS  AMERICANA  LATINA,  General  Drafting  Co.,  New  York, 
1919.  $20.00.  New  maps  and  charts  by  experts.  English 
and  Spanish  text. 

COMMERCIAL  ATLAS  OF  AMERICA,  including  South  America  in 

four  sections.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago,    1921. 

$35.00.     Wall  Map,  of  South  America,  46x66,  $10.00, 

$15.00.    Pocket  Maps,  4  sections,  each  35  cents. 

COMPARATIVE    WALL    ATLAS    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA,    George 

Philip  and  Son,  London  Geographical  Institute. 
LONDON  TIMES  SURVEY  ATLAS  OF  THE  WORLD,  1920. 
THE  DAILY  TELEGRAPH  VICTORY  ATLAS  OF  THE  WORLD,  Lon- 
don, 1920. 


488  APPENDIX  IV 

BUSINESS  ATLAS  OF  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY,  C.  S.  Hammond 
&Co.,  N.  Y.  88  p.  $1.50. 

SOUTH  AMERICA,  Maps,  Richard  Mayer,  70  Wall  St.,  New 
York.  Many  sections,  42x30  inches.  Each  section,  paper, 
$15.00,  linen  $17.50.  Key  map  showing  finished  sections 
on  request.  Railroads  and  Mineral  Conditions. 

COMMERCIAL  MAP  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA,  Scale  i :  1,000,000,  J. 
G.  Bartholomew,  London  and  Edinburgh.  3  s. 

COMMERCIAL  MAP  OF  LATIN  AMERICA,  23x33  inches,  Irving 
National  Bank,  New  York. 

TRADE  CHART  OF  LATIN  AMERICA,  23x33  inches,  Irving  Na- 
tional Bank,  1919.  Imports  and  exports  1913-1918  with 
per  cent  to  and  from  United  States. 

ATLAS  DO  BRAZIL,  by  Homem  de  Mello,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  1907. 

MAPPAS  DO  BRAZIL,  SOCIEDADE  NACIONAL  DE  AGRICULTURA, 
1907. 

MAPA  DE  CHILE  (Government)t  1910. 

ATLAS  ARGENTINO,  1898. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  supply  complete  bibliogra- 
phies. Other  works  are  listed  in  various  books  and  in  Govern- 
ment pamphlets.  An  excellent  series  of  bibliographies  recently 
published  in  The  World's  Markets  may  now  be  available  in 
pamphlet  form  through  the  courtesy  of  the  Service  Depart- 
ment of  Dun's  International  Review,  290  Broadway,  New 
York,  to  which  the  author  is  much  indebted. 


INDEX 


The  figures  in  black  face  indicate  references  of  especial  importance. 
— Ordinary  contractions  are  used,  as  R.  for  river,  Ry.  railway,  V .  for 
valley,  etc. — As  ch,  II,  and  n  are  regarded  in  Spanish  as  distinct  letters, 
ch  follows  all  the  c's,  II  and  the  I's,  and  n  n's. — For  additional  agricul- 
tural and  mineral  products,  see  under  the  individual  States. 


Abancay,  152,  171 
Abuna,  413 ;  R.  227,  243 
Acaray  Mts.,  101;  R.  347,  348 
Achacachi,  215,  225 
Aconcagua,  247,  257,  276;  Mt.  251 

257,  287,  296;  R.  251,  268 
Aconquija,  Mt.,  294 
Acre,  242,  375,  376,  405,  412;  R. 

227 

Aeroplanes,  113,  314,  367 
Agriculture,    40-43;    86-88;     105, 

106,    no,    141-143;    185-191; 

241-242;     275-276,     319-323; 

348-350;  369,  414-419 
Aguardiente,  42,  142,  189,  241 
Aguarico  R.,  126 
Aguas  Blancas,  266 
Aiguirre  Puerto,  306 
Alagoas,  375,  387,  399.  412,  432 
Alausi,  136,  138 
Albemarle,  Isl.,  133 
Albina,  ill 

Alfalfa,  143,  191,  276,  316 
Alligator,  143;  Pear,  190 
Almagro,  Diego  de,  113,  149,  245 
Alpacas,  193,  239,  240 
Aluminum,  107 
Amaga,  35,  37,  46 
Amarragao,  401 
Amazon  Basin  and  R.,  2,  3,  4,  6, 

16,  17,  76,  "4,  «5,  "I,  124, 

126,    137,    138,    143,    154,   159, 


173,    i74,    181,    182,   183,   210, 

211,    212,     227,     306,    378,    3», 
382,   403,  42O,  421 

Amazonas,  (Yen.),  55,  74,  75,  84, 
(Peru),  152,  169,  173,  188, 
(Brazil),  375,  402,  403,  405, 

425,  432 

Ambalema,  33,  37 
Ambato,  117,  137,  138,  130,  Basin, 

122,  123,  125 

Ancash,  152,  165,  197,  200 
Ancon,  151,  167 
Ancon  de  Sardinas,  Bay,  130 
Ancos,  165 
Ancud,  247,  277 
Ancud,  Gulf  of,  251,  259 
Angol,  247 
Antarctic  Circle,  250 
Antarctic  Current,   121,   156,   157, 

252 

Antimony,  193,  201,  235 
Antioquia,  9,  10,  u,  12,  22,  23,  38, 

40,  42,  49,  50,  51 
Antisana  Mt.,  126 
Antofagasta,    150,    205,    206,    215, 

222,     223,     243,    247,    256,    26l, 

263,  265,  266,  267,  268,  269, 
270,  271,  272,  292,  313 

Antonina,  394 

Anzoategui,  54,  55,  68,  82,  88 

Apa  R,  333,  339 

Apolobamba,  Nudo  of,  211,  234 


489 


490 


INDEX 


Aporama,  199 

Apuay  Knot,  125 

Apure,  55,  56,  71 ;  R.  62,  72,  84 

Apurimac,   150,  152,  171,  197;   R. 

159,  i?o,  171 
Aquidaban  R.,  339 
Aracaju,  375,  399,  412 
Aragua,  54,  55,  66,  67;  80,  88;  R. 

60,  67 

Araguary  R.,  386,  402 
Araguaya  R.,  381,  382,  412,  425, 

429 
Arauca,  10,  13,  27,  31;  R.  17,  27, 

3i,  84 

Arauco,  247,  259;  Bay,  263,  274 
Archidona,  117 
Argentina,  216,  218,  235,  242,  250, 

257,    280-330,    334,    335,    348, 

367,  368,  424,  427,  452 
Argentina  Lake,  313 
Arequipa,   152,   154,  158,  161,   168, 

180,    198,   200,   201,   203,    221, 

222 

Arica,  148,  151,  158,  222,  235,  236, 
246,  249,  255,  261,  263,  266, 
275  278 

Aricoma  Pass,  199 

Ariguani,  36 

Aripe  Rapids,  306 

Aroa,  66,  79,  81,  93 

Artigas,  356,  362;  Gen.,  355 

Ascope,  164 

Asphalt,  94 

Asuncion,  289,  306,  311,  312,  333, 
334,  336,  337,  339,  34O,  34*1 
343,  348,  393,  404,  409 

Atabapo  R.,  75,  76 

Atacama,  247,  256,  266,  276;  Puna 
de,  293,  325 

Atlantico,  9,  10,  II,  22,  44 

Atocha,  223 

Atrato  R.,  15,  16,  17,  18,  23,  24, 
35,  43,  48,  49 


Atures  Rapids,  17,  75,  84 

Aullagas  Lake,  226 

Australia,  133 

Ayacucho,  152,  171,  188,  193,  206 

Aymaras,  172,  181,  208 

Ayoapo,  236 

Ayolas,  Juan  de,  333,  334 

Azogues,  117,  133 

Azuay,  116,  117,  132,  133,  139,  145 

Babahoya,  117,  139;  R.,  127 
Bahia,   (Ec.),  136;   (Brazil),  374, 

375,   38i,   387,   388,   397,   398, 

400,   406,   412,   415,   416,   417, 

419,  428,  429,  430,  432 
Bahia  de  Caraquez,  136,  137 
Bahia  Blanca,  269,  301,  302,  303, 

307,   309,   3io,   312,   314,   316, 

318,  325,  326 
Bahia  Honda,  36 
Bajada  Grande,  305 
Balata,  43,  89,  107,  no 
Balmaceda,  246 
Balsa,  226,  227 
Balzar  R.,  127 
Ballenita,  131,  136,  144 
Ballivian,  210 
Bananas,  41,  in 
Banco,  34,  36 
Banos,  139 
Baquedano,  266 
Baragua  R.,  65 
Barbacoas,  26,  36,  43 
Barcelona,  55,  68,  79,  82,  88,  9-3,  94 
Barima,  108 
Barinas,  55,  71,  84,  94 
Barquisimeto,   55,   59,  66,   81,   83, 

84,  91 

Barranca  Bermeja,  47 
Barrancas,  76,  91 
Barranqueras,  329 
Barranquilla,    10,    12,    13,    22,    30, 

32,  33,  35,  47,  51 


INDEX 


491 


Barretos,  424 

Baudo,  Serrania  de,  15,  17,  18 

Baures  R.,  383 

Bauru,  409 

Bauxite,  99,  107,  ill 

Bayovar,   163 

Beagle  Channel,  300 

Beans,  88 

Beer,  329 

Belem,  375,  402 

Belgrano,  303 

Bello  Horizonte,  375,  405,  408 

Benalcazar,  Sebastian  de,  115 

Beni,  See  El  Beni 

Beni  R.,   159,  212,  218,  219,  224, 

227,  237,  242,  383,  384,  413 
Berbice  R.,  103,  104 
Bermejo    R.,   212,   226,   284,    288, 

289,  312 
Bermudez  Asphalt  Lake,  69,   94, 

95 

Berrio  Puerto,  35,  36 
Bio-Bio,    247,   259;    R.,   252,   263, 

275,  277 

Bismuth,  201,  235 
Bitumen,  108 
Blanco  Cape,  122 
Bancos,  355 
Bobures,  82,  87 
Boca  de  Ceniza,  30 
Boca  de  Navios,  61 
Bocas  del  Drago,  69 
Bocono,  72 
Bodega  Central,  34 
Bodegas,  139;  R.,  127 
Bogota,  8,  9,  10,  12,  13,  18,  19,  20, 

28,  32,  33,  34,  36,  37,  38,  46,  51 
Bolivar,     (Col.),    9,    10,    22,    24, 

(Yen.),  55,  72,  73,  74,  84,  88, 

89,  (Ec.),  116,  117,  133 
Bolivar  Ciudad,  27,  31,  55,  73,  78, 

83,  90,  92 
Bolivar,  Gen.,  8,  54,  150 


Bolivia,  4,  14,  53,  114,  148,  150, 
158,  159,  205-244,  248,  292, 

306,  309,    310,   332,   383,   409, 
412,  413,  455 

Boquete,  267 
Borax,  200,  268,  275 
Borja,  124,  138,  (Par.),  342 
Boyaca,  9,  10,  12,  27,  37,  54 
Braganga,  402,  412 ;  408 
Brazil,   i,  2,  4,  61,   101,  112,   115, 
192,   218,   242,   245,   289,   331, 

333,  334,    339,    342,   343,    355, 
372-434,  452,  453 

Brazo,  76 

Bucaramanga,  10,  28,  34,  35,  37,  38 

Bucay,  136 

Buenaventura,  12,  24,  26,  30,  31, 
36,  37,  48 

Buenos  Aires,  175,  223,  280,  281, 
282,  283,  284,  285,  287,  288, 
289,  290,  291,  298,  301,  305, 

307,  308,   309,    310,   312,   316, 
317,   318,   319,    320,    322,   325, 
326,   327,   328,   329,   330,   331, 

334,  343,   350,    355,   361,   364, 
403,  411,  454,  456,  457 

Buenos  Aires  Lake,  288,  300,  313 
Buga,  36,  38 

Caapaca,  352 

Caazapa,  335 

Cabedello,  400,  412,  417 

Cabellos,  367 

Cabildo,  265 

Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez,  373 

Cacao,  42,  86,  106,  no,   141,   188, 

241,  415 

Cacequy,  392,  411 
Caceres,  34 
Cachaca,  416 
Cacheuta,  326 
Cailloma,  168,  200 
Cajabamba,  165,  198 


492 


INDEX 


Cajamarca,  149,  152,  161,  164,  169, 

184,  193,  197,  200 
Calabozo,  55,  70  71 
Calacoto,  238 
Calama,  267,  272 
Calamar  10,  30,  32,  34 
Calamara  R.,  127 
Calantura,  182 

Caldas,  10,  12,  23,  35,  40,  50 
Caldera,  264,  265,  266 
Calera,  265 
Caleta  Coloso,  266 
Cali,    10,    13,    25,    34,    36,    37,    45, 

46,  48 
Caliche,  270 
Callao,  152,  154,  158,  162,  167,  175, 

176,  177,  188,  261 
Callapo,  227 
Camana,  168 
Camaquam,  430 
Camaquan  Lake,  62 
Cambao,  38 
Camerones  Bay,  304 
Camocim,  412 
Campana,  301,  318 
Campos,  397,  411,  416,  429 
Candelaria,  313,  334 
Canelas,  139 
Canelones,  356,  360 
Canar,   116,   117,  133 
Canete,  186 
Cano  Macareo,  78 
Cano  Pedernales,  76 
Caoba,  90 
Capure,  95 

Caqueta,  10,  26;  R.,  17 
Carabaya,  199 
Carabobo,  54,  55,   66,   70,  77,   78, 

91,  93 
Caracas,  54,  55,  57,  60,  63,  77,  79, 

80,  83 

Caracoles,  234 
Carache,  72 


Caraguatay,  335 

Carapegua,  342 

Caraquez  Bay,  131 

Carara  V.,  37 

Caraz,  166,  167 

Carchi,  116,  117,  133 

Carenero,  79,  80 

Carhuaz,  166 

Carhue,  310 

Cariaco  Gulf,  68 

Carmen  de  Patagones,  310,  330 

Carnaiiba  Wax,  423 

Caroni  R.,  61,  73,  74,  92 

Carora  R.,  65 

Cartagena,   10,   12,  22,  30,  31,  32, 

34,  35,  38 

Cartago,  25,  34,  36,  39 
Cartavio,  186 

Carupano,  69,  77,  83,  84,  94 
Carrizal,  265,  273 
Casanare,  27,  38,  48 
Casapalca,  196 

Casiquiare  R.,  17,  26,  62,  76,  89 
Casma,  167 
Castilletes,  82,  94 
Castro,  277;  .Gen.,  54,  69 
Catacaos,  163 
Catatnarca,    283,    294,    321,    322, 

324 
Catatumbo  R.,  16,  28,  31,  48,  62, 

64,  81,  84 
Cattle,  44,  91,  108,  in,  143,  193, 

240,   277,  278,   315,   350,   368, 

391,  424,  425,  426 
Cauca,  9,  10,  12,  25,  40,  41 ;  R.,  16, 

23,  32,  34,  35,  38,  50;  V.,  15, 

18,  19,  31,  35,  37,  38,  39,  42 
Cauquenes,  247 
Caura  R.,  61,  74,  90 
Cautin,  247,  259,  276 
Cayapas  Indians,  118,  119 
Cayenne,  1 12,  113 
Cayo,  136 


INDEX 


493 


Ceara,  375,  4oo,  412,  421,  423,  428, 

429 

Central  Valley,  257,  258,  264 
Centre,  66,  67 
Cerro  Azul,  168 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  152,  159,  170,  179, 

182,  195,  198,  200 
Cerro  Largo,  356,  357,  363,  370 
Cerro  Potosi,  232,  233 
Cerro  Quespesisa,  199 
Cesar  R.,  34,  36 
Christ  of  the  Andes,  296 
Church,  George  Earl,  412 
Cicapra  R.,  93 
Climar  R.,  359 
Coal,   45,   93,    145,    198,  236,   274, 

325,  370,  431 
Cobija,  210,  243 
Coca,  188,  242 
Coca  R.,  126 
Coconuts,  42,  88 
Cochabamba,   207,   209,   216,   218, 

224,   225,   227,  230,  236,  242, 

243 

Coche,  69,  70,  94 
Codera  Cape,  60 
Coffee,  7,  40,  86,  106,  no,  142,  143, 

188,  241,  414 

Cojedes,  55,  70,  77,  93;  R.,  59 
Cojoro,  78 

Colastine,  289,  301,  305 
Colchagua,  247,  258,  276 
Collins,  P.  T.,  413 
Colombia,  4,  7-52;  76,  78,  91.  "4. 

124,  133,  148,  149,  174,  373 
Colon,  31,  83 

Colonia,  356,  357,  361,  365 
Colonia  Las  Heras,  313 
Colonia  Sarmiento,  313 
Colonia  Suiza,  361 
Colonias  del  Gran  Chaco,  207,  220 
Colonias  del  Noroeste,  207,   219, 

237,  243 


Colorado  R.,  290,  299,  310 

Colorados,  355 

Colquechaca,  217 

Colquipocro,  167,  200 

Columbus,  8,  53,  69,  100 

Collahuasi,  223,  268 

Collay,  145 

Commewynne  R.,  109 

Comodoro    Rivadavia,    275,    300, 

304,  313,  325,  330 
Concepcion,  (Chile),  246,  247,  259, 

263,    264,    275,    276;     (Par.), 

335,  337,  342,  343,  344,  349 
Concepcion     del     Uruguay,     307, 

365 
Concordia,  285,  298,  307,  316,  362, 

367 

Conchi,  268 
Condoto  R.,  49 
Confuso  R.,  340 
Constitucion,  264 
Copacabana,  215,  236 
Copaiba,  107 
Copiapo,   247,   248,   256,   264,  265, 

407 
Copper,  28,  45,  93,  144,  194,  195, 

234,   271,   295,  300,   352,   370, 

429 

Copra,  106 
Coquimbo,  247,  251,  256,  261,  263, 

265,  270,  273,  274,  276 
Cordoba,  281,  283,  285,  287,  288, 

290,    296,   307,   308,   310,   316, 

319,  325,  329 

Corentyn  R.,  102,  104,  105,  109 
Corn,  43,   88,   in,    142,   143,    190, 

241,  319,  349 

Coro,  55,  65,  79,  81,  84,  91,  94 
Corocoro,  215,  222,  234,  235,  237 
Coroico,  215,  224 
Coronel,  236,  261,  263,  264,  274, 

275 
Coropuno  Mt.,  168 


494 


INDEX 


Corumba,  218,  220,  231,  289,  343, 

365,  404,  407,  409,  428 
Corral,  273 
Corriente  R.,  125 
Corrientes,  283,  288,  297,  304,  305, 

306,    311,   321,   322,   328,   331. 

337,  339,  343,  348 
Cotabambas,  199 
Cotopaxi  Mt.,  123,  125,  126,  137 
Cotton,  42,  88,  187,  321,  349,  418 
Crato,  412 
Cristobal  Colon,  69 
Cruzeiro  do  Sul,  405,  406 
Cruz  Grande,  273 
Cua,  83 

Cuareim  R.,  367 
Cuatro  Ojos,  227 
Cuba,  186 
Cubagua,  69 

Cucuta,  10,  13,  28,  36,  37,  38,  84 
Cuchivero  R.,  74 
Cuenca,    117,    119,    122,    123,    124, 

132,  138,  139,  184 
Cumana,  55,  65,  68,  79,  83,  84,  88, 

90,  94,  98 

Cundinamarca,  9,  10,  28,  40,  45 
Cunapiru,  370 
Cupisnique,  198 
Curasao,  31,  57,  66,  78,  79,  83,  90, 

96 

Curaray  R.,  126,  137 
Curico,  247,  258 
Curityba,  375,  393,  394,  4IO 
Cuyaba,  289,  375,  403,  407 ;  R.,  386, 

407 

Cuyuni  R.,  92,  108 
Cuzco,  149,  152,  154,  159,  171,  172, 

179,    180,    183,   184,   188,   190, 

193,    197,    199,  201,  203,   211, 

383 

Chacarilla,  234,  235 
Chaco,  223,  283,  293,  306,  312,  321, 

322,  329,  331,  333,  336,  340,  342, 


344,   345,  346,   349,   350,  35L 

352 

Chachani  Mt.,  180 
Chachapoyas,  152 
Chala,  154,  168,  171 
Challapata,  216 
Chama  R.,  82 
Chanchamayo  V.,  188 
Chanaral,  265 
Chapare  R.,  227 
Charles  Isl.,  133 
Charrua  Indians,  354 
Chatham  Isl.,  133 
Chaves,  406 
Chaves  Isl.,  133 
Chibchas,  27 

Chicama  V.,  164,  185,  186 
Chicla,  177 
Chiclayo,  152,  164 
Chicle,  43,  90 
Chicha,  42,  241 
Chile,  2,  4,  53,  114,  121,  122,  128, 

I5i,    157,    158,    187,    191,    193, 

205,  242,  245-279,  313,  323,  373 
Chilete,  164 
Chili  R.,  180 

Chiloe,  122,  247,  260,  275,  276,  277 
Chilian,  247 
Chillo  V.,  137 
Chimbo  R.,  127 
Chimbote,  159,  165,  166,  167,  176, 

183,  186,  198 

Chimborazo,  116,  117,  133,  139 
Chimborazo    Mt.,    122,    123,    133; 

Pass,  137 
Chimore  R.,  227 
Chinchillas,  193,  239 
Chinchipe  R.,  124 
Chiquinquira,  37 
Chiquitos,  Sierra  de,  21 1,  383 
Chirimoias,  143,  190 
Chita,  27,  139 
Chlorolque  Mt.,  234 


INDEX 


495 


Choc6,  10,  23,  35,  43,  49,  5<> 

Chone,  137 

Chonos  Isls.,  260 

Chorillos,  154,  183 

Chubut,   283,   299,   304,   311,   323, 

325 

Chuno,  241 

Chuquiaguillo,  230,  231 
Chuquisaca,    206,    207,    217,    223, 

237;  R.,  167 

Dairy  Industry,  328,  361,  368 

Daule  R.,  127,  142 

Delegacion    Nac.    en   el   Oriente, 

207,  219 

Delta  Amacuro,  55,  76,  94 
Delta  Orinoco,  56,  95,  97 
Demarara  R.,  103,  104 
Desaguadero  R.,  212,  226,  234,  235 
Deseado,  304,  313 ;  R.,  313 
Diamante,  313 
Diamantina,  429 
Diamantino,  383,  386 
Diamonds,  94,  107,  108,  429 
Dique,  30,  31 
Dividivi,  89 
Doce  R.,  430 
Dolores,  355 
D'Orbigny,  2IO 
Duke  R.,  295 
Duran,  136 
Durazno,  356,  364,  367 

East  Coast,  280-433 
East  Indians,  102,  105,  in 
Ecuador,  4,  8,  14,  15,  24,  38,  114- 
147,   148,    157,   163,   188,   251, 

373 

El  Beni,  207,  218,  243 
El  Callao,  73,  74,  84,  93 
El  Canto,  154 
El  Dorado,  92 
El  Misti,  158,  180 


El  Oriente,  116,  117,  123,  134,  219 

El  Oro,  116,  117,  132,  139,  144 

El  Valle,  9,  10,  24,  40,  50 

El  Vigia,  84 

Embarcacion,  223,  293,  306,  312 

Emeralds,  7,  50 

Encarnaci6n,   311,   335,   342,   343, 

352 

Encontrados,  72,  81,  84,  85,  96 
Ene  R,  170,  183 
Ensenada,  301,  302 
Entre  Rios,  283,  288,  298,  305,  311, 

313,  319,  329,  33i 
Escalante  R.,  62,  64,  81,  85 
Esmeralda,  75,  76 
Esmeraldas,  116,  117,  118,  128,  130, 

131,  136,  142,  145 
Esmeraldas  R.,  127,  130 
Espejos  Spring,  238 
Esperanga,  409 
Esperanza  Rapids,  227 
Espirito  Santo,  375,  397,  411,  414, 

432 

Essequibo  R.,  101,  104,  105 
Esteros,  210 
Eten,  164,  175 
Eucalyptus,  234;  timber,  145,  324, 

364 

Facatativa,  33,  34,  37 

Falc6n,  54,  55,  65,  79,  88,  93,  94,  97 

Federal  District,  54,  55,  56,  66,  67 

Fernando  de  Noronha  Isl.,  406 

Ferrenafe,  164 

Ferrobamba,  197 

Fibre  Plants,  42,  91,  107,  146,  422 

Fish,  108,  144,  194,  278,  398,  400 

Flandes,  37 

Florencia,  10 

Flores,  356,  364;  General,  355 

Florianopolis,  375,  393 

Florida,  355,  356,  364 

Flour,  329,  427 


496 


INDEX 


Forestry,  43,  89,  106,  113,  143,  191, 

242,  277,  323,  345,  370,  419 
Formosa,  283,  293,  304,  306,  313, 

321 

Fortaleza,  375,  401,  412 
Fragosa,  407 

Francia,  Dr.  J.  G.  R.,  334 
Fray  Bentos,  307,  356,  362,  369 
Friburgo,  411 
Frigorificos,  44,  92,  278,  318,  350, 

352,  368,  369 
Frio  Cape,  380,  380 
Fruit,  106,  143,  189,  241,  276,  323, 

349,  370,  419 
Fundicion,  36 
Furniture,  328 

Galapagos  Isls.,  116,  117,  121,  133 
Galera  Tunnel,  177;  Volcano,  25 
Garay,  Juan  de,  281,  305 
Garcas  R.,  429 
General  Lopez,  (town),  318 
Georgetown,  101,  103,  104 
Girardot,  33,  34,  35,  37 
Goajira  Penin.,  15,  21,  36,  46,  56 
Goats,  45,  65,  91,  143,  239,  278,  315, 

368,  426 
Gold,  7,  45,  49,  92,  107,  ill,  112, 

145,    199,   229,   274,   324,   370, 

428 

Gomez,  General,  92 
Gorgas,  General,  128 
Goya,  298,  313 
Goyaz,  339,  375,  381,  385,  388,  404, 

411,  428,  429 
Goyaz  Mts.,  380,  381 
Goyllarisquisga,  179,  182,  184,  196 
Granadillas,  143 
Gran  Chaco,  220,  288,  338,  339 
Grande  R.,  127,  407 
Granja,  412 
Greenheart,  106 
Greenwich  Park,  104 


Grubb,  W.  Barbrooke,  337 

Guacara,  67 

Guadalupe,  164 

Guaharibos  Ind.,  75 

Guainia  R.,  17,  76 

Guaira,  335 

Guaire  R.,  63,  68;  V.,  80 

Guajara-Mirim,  225,  227,  243,  413 

Gualaquiza,  139 

Guanabara  Bay,  395 

Guanacos,  193,  329 

Guanare,  55,  71,  84 

Guanipa,  82 

Guano,  194 

Guanoco,  69,  82,  94,  97 

Guanta,  68,  79,  82 

Guapo,  68,  80 

Guapore  R.,  211,  212,  227,  383 

Guaqui,  181,  221,  223,  236 

Guaranda,  117 

Guaranis,  335,  354 

Guarapiche  R.,  70 

Guarapuava,  425 

Guarico,  55,  70,  80,  83 

Guasipati,  73 

Guatire,  83,  87 

Guaviare  R.,  17,  27,  61,  75,  76 

Guayana  (Guiana),  56,  76,  86,  92 

Guayana  Highlands,  59,  60,  62,  72, 

ioo,  379,  380,  384 
Guayaquil,  117,  119,  120,  127,  128, 

132,  135.  136 
Guayaquil  Gulf,  122,  124,  127,  128, 

131,  163 
Guayas,  116,  117,  131,  139;  R.,  122, 

127,  138,  156;  V.,  142 
Guiana,  100-113 
Guiana  Brazilian,  ioo,  380,  388 
Guiana  British,  73,  ioo,  101,  102- 

108 

Guiana  Dutch,  ioo,  101,  109-112 
Guiana  French,  ioo,  101,  112-113 
Guiana  Highlands,  379,  380 


INDEX 


497 


Guigue,  80,  83 
Guindi,  335 

Hauri  Hauri  R.,  199 

Herva  Matte,  393,  422 

Higuerote,  80 

Hogs,  92,  193,  240,  317,  368 

Honda,  33,  47;  Rapids,  33 

Horses,  45,  92,  194,  278,  317,  368, 

426 

Huacho,  167,  187,  201 
Huailas  V.,  158,  159,  166,  167,  176, 

179,  183,  198,  457 
Huaina  Potosi  Mt,  222,  233 
Huallaga  R.,  159,  160,  169,  170,  173 
Huamachuco,  165,  188 
Huancabamba,  184 
Huancavelica,  152,  171,  197,  200 
Huancayo,  171,  179,  183 
Huanchaca,  224,  232 
Huanchaco,  165,  186 
Huanday,  164 
Huanta,  188 

Huanuco,  152,  161,  169,  170,  188 
Huaras,  152,  165,  166 
Huarmey,  167,  199 
Huasaga  R.,  125 
Huascaran  Mt.,  166 
Huasco,  256,  265 
Huatanay  R.,  172 
Huayday,  198 
Huaytiquina,  269,  313 
Huigra,  136 
Huila,  9,  10,  28,  51 
Humboldt,  Alexander  von,  148 
Hydroplane,  33 

labaro  R.,  227 
Ibague,  10,  29,  35,  39 
Ibarra,  38,  117,  133,  137 
Ibicuy,     (Arg.),    289,    301,    311; 
(Par.),  352 


lea,  152,  167,  168,  187,  197,  198 
Iguape,  Ribeira  de,  386,  406 
Iguassii  Falls,  289,  306,  331,  342 
Iguassu  R.,  289,  294,  306,  333,  343, 

385,  393 

Ilo,  154,  169,  175 

Illampu  Mt.,  222,  225 

Illimani  Mt.,  222 

Imataca,  94 

Imbabura,  116,  117,  133 

Imperial,  246 

Inambari  R.,  192,  199 

Incas,  115,  149,  150 

Inciarte,  82,  95 

Indians,  n,  21,  24,  25,  27,  37,  56, 
64,  75,  102,  118,  119,  125,  153, 
173,  179,  203,  208,  246,  248, 
281,  284,  306,  336,  354,  374 

Indigo,  88,  142 

Industries,  51,  106,  ill,  146,  202, 
238-240,  327-331 

Ingeniero  White,  303 

Investments,  52,  98,  147,  203,  244, 

279,  331,  353,  371,  433 
Iodine,  271 

Ipacarai  Lake,  340,  343 
Ipane  R.,  339 
Ipanema,  430 
Iquique,    158,   247,   255,   261,   263, 

266,  271 
Iquitos,  126,  152,  154,  161,  170,  173, 

179,  182,  183,  192,  382,  403 
Irala,  334 

Irigoyen,  Dr.  Hipolito,  282 
Iron,  94,  144,  273,  352,  430 
Islay,  168 

Itabira  do  Matto  Dentro,  430 
Itaituba,  406 
Itamarca  Falls,  383 
Itaperim,  397 
Itapura,  409 
Itaquy,  411 
Itatiaia  Mt.,  I,  381,  385 


498 


INDEX 


Itenez  R.,  212,  227 
Itonamas  R.,  383 

Jaen,  139,  184,  188 

Jambeli  Channel,  135 

Januaria,  406 

Jaragua,  399;  Grass,  425 

Jatunhuasi,  198 

Jauja  R.,  170,  179 

Javanese,  in 

Javary  R.,  384 

Jazpampa,  266 

Jejui  R.,  339 

Jequitonha  R.,  386 

Jesus  Marie,  183 

Jipijapa,  131,  146 

Joao,  Prince,  374 

Joazeiro,  412 

Juan  Fernandez  Isls.,  249,  261,  278 

Jujuy,  283,  292,  306,  312,  321,  322, 

326 

Juliaca,  180 
Jundiahy,  408,  411 
Junin,  150,  152,  170,  193,  197 
Junin  Lake,  170,  179,  193 
Juquia,  411 
Jurua,  405 ;  R.,  384,  406 

Kaieteur  Falls,  101,  104 
Kaolin,  108,  352 
Kapok,  423 

La  Asunci6n,  55,  70 

La  Ceiba,  35,  81,  85,  98 

La  Columna  Mt,  59 

La  Chacarilla,  235 

La  Dorada,  33,  34,  37,  38 

La  Goajira,  10,  18 

La  Guaira,  63,  67,  77,  80,  83 

La   Guayra   Falls,   289,   306,   333, 

343,  385,  393 
Laguna,  406 


Laguneta,  62 

La  Hacha,  81 

La  Limena,  165 

Lambayeque,  152,  164,  187,  189 

La  Merced,  178 

La  Pampa,  283,  288,  299,  303,  310, 

319 
La  Paz,   181,   184,  206,  207,  209, 

2IO,    213,    214,    217,     221,    222, 

223,  224,   225,  226,  230,  231, 

233,  234,  236,  237,  242,  243, 

248,  311,  457 

La  Plata,  283,  285,  302,  309,  312, 

318,  329 

La   Plata   R.,   210,  211,  212,  281, 

289,   301,   302,  306,  354,  360, 

364,  379,  385;  Isl.,  144 
La  Quiaca,  184,  223,  235,  292,  309, 

312 

Lara,  55,  63,  66,  88,  93 
La  Rioja,  283,  295,  321,  322,  325 
La  Serena,  247,  248,  256,  265 
Latacunga,  117,  125,  137,  139 
Lavalleja  General,  355 
La  Vela,  65,  79,  81 
La  Victoria,  67,  80 
Lead,  144,  194,  195,  235,  274,  432 
Lebrija  R.,  34,  35 
Le6n,  116,  117,  133 
Leopoldina,  407,  411 
Leticia,  154 

Libertad,  152,  164,  188,  189 
Lima,  8,   115,    149,   W   152,   153, 

154,    160,    162,    167,    176,    179, 

183,  187,  190,  203,  206,  455,  457 
Linares,  247,  258 
Linseed,  320 

Lipez,  234;  Serrania  de,  211 
Live  stock,  44,  91,  108,  143,  193, 

239,   240,  277,   315,  350,   368, 

424 

Loa  R.,  256,  268 
Lobitos,  144,  201 


INDEX 


499 


Lobos  Isls.,  164,  201 

Lobos,  Punta  de,  275 

Loja,  116,  117,  123,  124,  132,  139, 
144,  145,  184 

Lomas,  168 

Lopez,  Carlos  Antonio,  334 ;  Fran- 
cisco, 334,  335 

Loreto,  152,  173,  179 

Lorica,  22 

Los  Andes,  (Chile),  254,  268,  269; 
(Arg.),  283,  291,  293 

Los  Angeles,  247 

Los  Patos  Pass,  257 

Los  Rios,  116,  117,  132 

Lota,  263,  264,  274,  275 

Luque,  342 ;  Hernando  de,  147 

Lurin,  183 

Llallagua,  233 

Llamas,  143,  193,  225,  239 

Llanos,  16,  27,  59,  60,  62,  70,  71, 
91,  123,  211 

Llanquihue,  247,  259,  277;  Lake, 
252 


Macami,  no 

Macas,  139,  145 

Maceio,  375,  399,  4*7 

Macora,  146 

Machacamarca,  224 

Machachi  V.,  137 

Machala,  117,  132,  139 

Machalilla,  136 

Madeira    R.,    160,   243,   383,   384, 

403,  406,  412,  413 
Madeira-Mamore    Ry.,    183,    225, 

227,  228,  243,  383,  412 
Madera  R.,  212 
Madidi  R.,  212,  227,  237,  241 
Madre  de  Dios,  152,  173,  199;  R., 

159,    172,    183,    192,   212,   219, 

227,  238,  241,  383 
Magallanes,  246,  247,  260,  275,  278 


Magangue,  34 

Magdalena,  9,   10,  21;  R.,  16,  17, 

18,  22,  32-35,  37,  38 
Magellan  Strait,  251 
Mahogany,  90 
Maipo  R.,  246 
Maipures  Rapids,  17,  75 
Maize,  see  Corn 
Majes  R.,  168,  180 
Mai  Abrigo,  366 
Malabrigo,  165 
Maldonado,  (Peru),  152;  (Urug.)» 

356,  363,  367,  370 
Malleco,  247,  259;  R.,  264 
Mamore  R.,  160,  211,  212,  219,  227, 

383,  412,  413 
Manabi,    116,    117,   131,    142,    144, 

146 
Manaos,  26,  43,  179,  375,  378,  403. 

406,  413 

Mandioca,  142,  349,  400,  419 
Manganese,  145,  325,  352,  370,  428 
Manglar  Alto,  136,  146 
Mangrove,  90 
Manizales,  10,  23,  35 
Manta,  131,  136,  144;  Bay,  131 
Mantaro  R.,  159,  170,  171 
Mantiqueiro,  Serra  de,  385,  428 
Manufactures,  51,  52,  98,  202,  203, 

278,  327-329,  352,  371,  426,  427 
Manzanares  R.,  79 
Mapocho  R.,  254 
Mar,   Serra  do,   I,  380,   381,  385, 

388 
Maracaibo,  41,  55,  57,  64,  78,  82, 

83,  84,  91,  94,  98 
Maracaibo  Channel,  78,  96;  Lake, 

16,  31,  36,  46,  48,  53,  59,  61, 

62,  64,  78,  82,  84,  87,  94,  95,  96 
Maracaju,  Serra  de,  385 
Maracay,  55,  57,  67,  79,  80,  83,  87, 

92,  98 
Marajos  Isl.,  382,  406 


500 


INDEX 


Maranhao,  375,  377,  4<>i,  406,  415, 

418,  430 
Maranon    R.,    119,    124,    125,    138, 

159,  170,  182,  192 
Mar  del  Plata,  302,  309,  326,  330 
Margarita  Isl.,  69,  70,  79,  98 
Mariquita,  35 
Maroni  R.,  109,  113 
Marowijne  R.,  in,  112,  113 
Martinez,  317 
Martinique  Isl.,  112 
Matahuasi,  183 
Matarani,  168 
Matto  Grosso,  289,  339,  348,  375. 

383,   386,   403,   413,   415,   422, 

424,  425,  426,  428,  429 
Matucana,  178 
Maturin,  55,  70 
Maua,  407,  411 
Maues,  406 

Maule,  247,  258;  R.,  252 
Medellin,  10,  12,  13,  19,  23,  35,  37, 

38,51 

Medicinal  Plants,  44 
Meiggs,  Henry,  165,  177,  179,  196 
Mejillones,  256,  266,  267 
Melo,  356,  363,  366 
Mendoza,  269,  281,  283,  288,  296, 

297,   303,   309,   3io,   320,   322, 

323,  325,  326,  329;  Pedro  de, 

281,  333 

Mene  Grande,  95,  96 
Mercedario  Mt.,  251 
Mercedes,  356,  361,  365,  366 
Merida,  55,  57,  72,  81,  84,  93,  98 
Mesopotamia,  288,  290,  317 
Mestizos,  209 
Meta,  10,  26;  R.,   17,  27,  61,  62, 

65,  84 

Minas,  356,  364,  370 
Minas  Geraes,  375,  381,  388,  404, 

414,   418,   424,   425,   426,   428, 

429,  430,  432 


Mining-Minerals,  45-50,  52,  Q2-97, 

107,   108,   in,   112,   144,   145; 

194-202,  229-238,  270-275,  324- 

326,  352,  370,  427-433 
Miranda,  54,  55,  66,  68,  79,  80 
Mirim   Lake,   354,   359,   363,   386, 

387,  407 
Misiones,  283,  287,  293,  311,  313, 

321,  322,   324,   328,  331,  422; 

Sierra  de,  211 
Mocoa,  10,  26,  38 
Mojos  Plains,  384 
Molybdenum,  201 
Mollendo,  161,  168,  175,  179,  192, 

221,  222,  243,  261 
Monagas,  54,  55,  70,  82 
Monazite,  398 
Monday  R.,  339 
Montana,  153,   154,  156,  159,  161, 

172,  174,  178,  181,  188,  210 
Montecristi,  131,  146 
Monteria,  22,  38 
Montevideo,    354,    355,    356,    357, 

360,   364,   365,   366,   367,   370, 

371,  392,  404,  4io 
Moquegua,  152,  169,  255 
Moriche  Palm,  91 
Morococha,  177,  195,  196,  200,  224 
Morona  R.,  124,  125 
Moropan,  163 
Morrisquillo  Bay,  44 
Motatan,  72,  81,  84,  85 
Moyabamba,  152 

Nacion  La,   (Newspaper),  285 

Nacunday,  347 

Nahuel  Huapi  Lake,  288,  299,  313, 

324 

Naiguata  Falls,  08 ;  Mt.,  60 
Nanay  R.,  124,  126 
Napo,   126;   R.,  26,  115,   118,  124, 

126,  138,  139 
Naranjal,  139 


INDEX 


501 


Narictial,  82,  93 

Narino,  9,  10,  25,  50,  51 

Natal,  375,  400,  412 

Nazareth,  412 

Nechi  R.,  34,  50 

Negra  Muerta,  312 

Negritos,  202 

Negro  R.,  (Amazon),  17,  26,  43, 
76,  384,  403,  406;  (Arg.),  288, 
290,  309;  (Urug.),  358,  359, 
361,  365;  (South  Brazil),  393 

Neiva,  10,  28,  35,  39 

Nemocon,  37 

Nepefia  R.,  167 

Neuquen,  283,  299,  309,  322,  324, 
325,  326 

Neveri  R.,  68,  82 

New  Amsterdam,  103,  104 

New  Granada,  8,  115 

Nico  Perez,  366 

Nictheroy,  375,  396,  411 

Nichare  R.,  74 

Nirgua,  66,  93 

Nitrates,  270 

North  Coast,  7-113 

Nuble,  247,  258 

Nueva  Esparta,  55,  69 

Nueva  Germania,  347 

Nuevo  Gulf,  304 

Nuts,  417 


Obidos,  403,  406 

Ocafia,  35 

Ocumare  de  la  Costa,  67,  79,  83 

Ocumare  del  Tuy,  55,  68,  80,  89 

O'Higgins,  247,  258,  272,  276 

Ojeda,  Alonzo  de,  8,  53 

Olinda,  426 

Olmas,  367 

Ollague,  223,  268,  275 

Oran,  223,  306 

Oranges,  349,  419 


Orellana,  154;  Francisco  de,  115, 

126 
Oriente,    116,    117,    123,    134,    140 

145 
Orinoco  R.,  3,  16,  17,  18,  26,  48, 

59,  60,  61,  73,  74,  75,  76,  84, 

90,  92,  94,  99,  101 
Oro,  Rio  de,  28,  48,  96 
Orocue,  31 

Oroya,  177,  178,  179,  183,  200 
Ortiz,  83 
Orton  R.,  227 
Oruro,  207,  209,  210,  215,  223,  224, 

232,  233,  234,  243 
Osasco,  424 
Osorno,  313 
Otuzco,  188,  198 
Ouro  Preto,  405 
Ovalle,  273 
Oyack  R.,  112 
Oyapock  R.,  112,  406 
Oyon,  198 


Pacaraima  Mts.,  101 

Pacasmayo,  164,  169,  175,  188,  189 

Pacific  Ry.,  37 

Pachacamac  R.,  183 

Pachacayo,  197,  198 

Pacheco,  238 

Pachitea  R.,  169,  170 

Paita,  131,  156,  163,  175,  182,  201, 

202 

Paja  Toquilla,  146 
Palcazu,  170 
Palma  Sola,  81 
Palmira,  25,  36,  37,  38 
Paloma,  367 

Pampa  Aullagas  Lake,  212 
Pampa  Central,  See  La  Pampa 
Pampatar,  70,  79 
Pamplona,  38 
Panama,  7,  8,  15,  18,  107,  133 


502 


INDEX 


Panama  Hats,  25,  26,  51,  131,  146, 

163,  201 
Pan  American  Ry.,  38,  137,  175, 

179,  184,  223 
Pando,  361 
Pangoa  R.,  183 
Pantana,  42 

Paper,  91,  98,  107,  146,  328 
Para,  174,  179,  182,  375,  383,  401, 

402,   406,   408,  412,   417,  420, 

425,  432;  R.,  382,  402 
Paracas  Penin.,  198 
Paraguari,  335,  337,  342,  352 
Paraguay,  205,  220,  332-353,  368, 

369,  422 
Paraguay  R.,  205,  212,  220,  226, 

304,  313,  333,  338,  339,  343, 

383,  386,  409,  410 
Parahyba,  375,  40O,  412,  417,  429, 

432 

Parahyba  do  Norte  R.,  400 
Parahyba  do  Sul  R.,  386,  396,  411 
Paramaribo,  109,  no,  in 
Paramos,  19,  28,  72,  122,  129 
Parana,     (Arg.),    283,    289,    298, 

305;    (Brazil),  375,  385,  388, 

393,   394,  419,  422,  424,   425, 

429,  430,  431 
Parana  R.,  288,  289,  304,  305,  306, 

3",  333,  339,  34O,  343,  347,  374, 

381,  385,  388,  393,  407,  410 
Paranagua,  394,  410,  422,  425 
Paranahyba  R.,  385 
Paranapanema  R.,  385,  393 
Paria  Gulf,  60,  69,  70,  76,  78,  97; 

Penin.,  69,  97 
Parime  Mts.,  60 
Parnahyba  R.,  386,  401 
Pastaza  R.,  124,  125 
Pasto,  10,  12,  25,  38,  51,  133 
Patagonas,  275 
Patagonia,  287,  288,  299,  309,  310, 

313,  317,  324 


Patapo,  164 

Patia  R.,  16,  17,  25,  36 

Patifio  Simon,  J.,  224,  233 

Pato  R.,  50 

Patos,  Lagoa  dos,  386,  387,  392, 

407 
Paucartambo,    199;    R.,    159;    V., 

188 

Paulo  Affonso  Falls,  386 
Pauta  R.,  124 
Paysandu,  356,  357,  362,  365,  367, 

370 

Pearls,  94,  144 
Pedernales,  76;  Isl.,  97 
Pedro,  Dom  II.,  374 
Pelotas,  392,  425,  431 
Perene  R.,  159,  170,  178,  183;  V., 

178 

Pericos,  84 
Perija,  84,  96;  Sierra  de,  18,  59, 

61 

Peripe  R.,  127 
Pernambuco,   367,   374,   375,   387, 

399,  406,  412,  414,  416,  418, 

422,  426,  428,  431,  432 
Peru,  4,  5,  118,  121,  122,  123,  125, 

148-204,    275,    278,    281,    382, 

383,  384,  406,  457 
Petare,  80 
Petroleum,  46,  95,   144,  2OI,  237, 

275,  325,  371,  432 
Petropolis,  396,  407,  411 
Philip  II.,  374 
Piar  District,  73 
Piauhy,  375,  388,  401,  428 
Pichilemu,  264 
Pichincha,  115,  116,  117,  133,  139, 

144,  145;  Vole.  123 
Pichis  R.,  170 
Pilar,  335,  336,  343 
Pilcomayo  R.,  212,  217,  226,  288, 

289,  339 
Pimentel,  164 


INDEX 


503 


Pintados,  266 

Piramides,  304 

Pirapora,  406 

Piria,  Senor,  364 

Piriapolis,  363,  367 

Piracicaba,  425,  432 

Pisagua,  255,  266,  270,  271 

Pisco,  154,  168,  175,  199,  200 

Piura,  152,  163,  182,  187,  201 

Pizarro,  163 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  115,  149,  164, 

169,  172,  245,  281 
Pizarro,  Gonzales,  115,  126 
Plaisance,  104 
Plantains,  41,  106,  142 
Platinum,  7,  48,  144,  145,  43^ 
Pomasqui,  145 
Pongo   de   Manseriche,   124,   138, 

182 

Ponta  Grossa,  394,  410 
Poopo,  Lake,  212,  226 
Popayan,  10,  12,  25,  36,  38,  39 
Porce  R.,  50 
Port  of  Spain,  69,  78 
Porto  Alegre,  375,  392,  410 
Porto  Esperanc.a,  409 
Porto  Velho,  413 
Portoviejo,  117,  131;  R.,  131 
Portuguesa,  55,  60,  71,  77,  88 
Posadas,  283,  294,  306,  311,  337, 

342,  343 
Potaro  R.,  104 
Potash,  271 
Potosi,  207,  209,  ai6,  224,  225,  230, 

231,  232,  233,  234,  237 
Prat,  267 

Prensa,  La,  (newspaper),  285 
Providencia,  10 
Pucalpa,  182 
Pucasuro  R.,  125 
Puente  del  Este,  367 
Puerto  Aiguirre,  306 
Puerto  Asis,  38 


Puerto  Belgrano,  312 

Puerto  Beltran,  33,  34,  37 

Puerto  Bermudez,  179 

Puerto  Berrio,  35 

Puerto  Bolivar,  138 

Puerto  Brais,  224 

Puerto  Cabello,  66,  67,  77,  80,  81, 

83,  92,  98 

Puerto  Colombia,  12,  30,  32 
Puerto  del  Sauce,  367 
Puerto  Deseado,  313,  330 
Puerto  Galileo,  345 
Puerto  Gallegos,  283,  304,  313,  314 
Puerto  Galvan,  303 
Puerto  Jessup,  179 
Puerto  Lim6n,  182 
Puerto  Madryn,  304,  311 
Puerto  Max,  343 
Puerto  Mendez,  343 
Puerto  Militar,  326 
Puerto  Molendez,  182 
Puerto  Montt,  247,  252,  259,  264, 

266,  269,  278 
Puerto  Pando,  227 
Puerto  Pinasco,  345,  350 
Puerto  Suarez,  207,  210,  218,  220, 

225,  238,  243 
Puerto  Tablas,  73 
Puerto  Villamizar,  36 
Puerto  Wertheman,  183 
Puerto  Wilches,  34,  37 
Pulacayo,  232 
Puna,  212 

Puna  Isl.,  122,  127,  131,  135,  139 
Puno,  152,  172,  180,  181,  188,  193, 

199,  221 
Punta  Arenas,  193,  247,  249,  253, 

261,  263,  278,  304,  313 
Punta  de  Lobos,  275 
Purtts,  405;  R.,  172,  227,  384 
Putumayo,  10,  26;  R.,  17,  26,  38, 

126 
Pyrenees  Mt,  381,  385 


504 


INDEX 


Quarahim,  367,  411 

Quebracho,  323,  345 

Quelez,  428 

Queruvilca,  164,  198 

Quesada,  Gonzalo  Jimenez  de,  8 

Quespesisa  Cerro,  199 

Quevado  R.,  127 

Quibdo,  10,  24,  35,  43,  48 

Quichuas,  172,  179,  181,  208 

Quicksilver,  133,  144,  200 

Quilca,  168 

Quiloaza  R.,  305 

Quimsa  Cruz  Range,  234 

Quinine,  142,  242 

Quinua,  191,  241 

Quiquio,  352 

Quishuarcancha,  179,  196 

Quispicanchis,  199 

Quito,  115,  116,  117,  119,  120,  122, 

127,  130,  136,  137,  139 


Rancagua,  247,  272 

Rauco  Lake,  252 

Rawson,  283,  304 

Recife,  375,  377,  399,  406,  417 

Reconquista,  314 

Recuay,  166,  183,  184 

Reloncavi  Gulf,  266 

Remate  dos  Males,  406 

Resistencia,  283,  293,  312,  321 

Reventazon,  163 

Riachuelo,  330;  R.,  301 

Riberalta,  207,  210,  219,  225,  227, 

413 
Rice,  42,   105,   no,   189,  241,  322, 

350,  419 

Rimac  R.,  149,  162;  V.,  177 
Riobamba,  117,  125,  136,  137,  145 
Rio  Branco,  405 
Rio  Chico,  68,  80 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  254,  367,  374,  375, 

377,   38i,   388,   39°,   395,   396, 


406,   407,   408,   4",   4M,   4i6, 

418,  427,  432,  454,  456 
Rio  Grande,  392;  R.,  385 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  375,  381, 
400,  412,  416,  423,  429,  432 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  375,  380,  385, 
386,  387,  388,  391,  410,  4", 
416,  418,  422,  425,  426,  427, 
429,  430,  431,  432 

Riohacha,  21,  30,  31,  46 

Rio  Limon,  82 

Rio  Mulato,  224 

Rio  Negro,  (Arg.),  283,  299, 
304,  309;  (Urug.),  356,  36U 
(Brazil),  393,  410 

Rivera,  356,  362,  366,  370;  Gen- 
eral, 355 

Rockstone,  104 

Rocha,  356,  363,  366,  367 

Roosevelt  R.,  383 

Ropeway  Line,  35 

Roraima  Mt.,  61,  101,  380 

Rosario,  285,  289,  297,  301,  304, 
307,  308,  310,  312,  316,  322, 

326,  33i;  (Urug.),  366,  367 
Rubber,  43,  89,  106,  143,  192,  242, 

419,  420 
Rurenabaque,  224,  227 

Sabana  Ry.,  34,  37 

Sacramento,  Pampa  del,  160,  183 

Saenz  Pefia,  Dr.  Roque,  282 

Safety  Isls.,  112 

St.  George  Gulf,  304,  313 

St.  Laurent,  113 

St.  Roque  Cape,  381 

Salado  del  Norte  R.,  289,  295 

Salaverry,  164,  165,  175,  186 

Salt,  64,  69,  94,  201,  275,  325 

Salta,  269,  283,  292,  306,  307,  312, 

313,  321,  322,  326 

Salto,  356,  357,  362,  365,  367,  370 
Salto  Grande  Falls,  331 


INDEX 


505 


Sama  R.,  255 

Samanco,  167,  186,  188 

San  Andres,  10,  12 

San     Antonio,     (Col.),     10,     72; 

(Yen.),  72;    (Ec.),   137,   145; 

(Chile),    258,    265;     (Arg.), 

283,  293,  299,  304,  313;  (Par.), 

345,  350 ;  Cape,  289 
San  Bernadino,  343 
San   Carlos,    (Ven.),   55,   71,  84; 

(Urug.),  367 

San  Carlos  de  Bariloche,  313 
San  Cristobal,  55,  71,  84;  Isl.,  133 
Sandia,  199 
San  Eugenic,  356,  367 
San  Felipe,  (Ven.),  55,  66,  81,  83; 

(Chile),  247 
San  Felix,  73,  81,  84 
San  Fernando,  247 
San  Fernando  de  Apure,  55,  71, 

84 

San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  55,  75 
San  Francisco,  310 
San  Francisco  de  Yare,  80 
San  Fructuoso,  356 
Sangay  Mt.,  123 
San  Ignacio,  335 
San  Jorge  R.,  34 
San  Jose,  356,  361,  366 
San  Juan,  283,  295,  303,  322,  323, 

325 
San  Juan  R.,    (Col.),   15,    17,   18, 

24,  26,  43,  49 

San  Juan  R.,  (Ven.),  69,  97 
San  Julian,  304,  313 
San    Lorenzo,     (Ven.),    82,    95; 

(Ec.),  137;  Cape,  121,  131 
San  Luis,  283,  287,  288,  297,  303, 

3io,  317,  319,  325 
San  Luis  do  Maranhao,  401 
San  Martin,  48,  152,  173,  188 
San  Martin,  General,  150,  246,  257, 

281 


San  Matias  Gulf,  313 

San  Nicolas,  301 

San  Pedro,  (Chile),  268;   (Par.), 

335,  342 
San  Rafael,   (Ven.),  83;    (Arg.), 

297 

San  Ramon,  366 
San  Roque,  Dique,  296 
San  Salvador,  343,  345,  350 
Santa,  167;  R.,  158,  165,  166,  167, 

184,  186 

Santa  Ana,  83;  Lake,  170 
Sant'   Anna  do   Livramento,   366, 

410,  425 

Santa  Barbara,  81,  85 
Santa    Catharina,    375,    385,    388, 

392,   418,   420,   422,   426,   431, 

432 
Santa  Cruz,   (Bol.),  207,  209,  210, 

217,   218,   223,   225,   227,   230, 

231,   236,   237,   238,   241,   242, 

243,    342,    383;     (Arg.),    283, 

300,   304,   317,   318;    R.,   300; 

(Brazil),  411,  430 
Santa  Elena,  120,  131,  136,  138, 

144;  Cape,  121,  122,  131 
Santa  Fe,  283,  285,  288,  289,  290, 

297.  30i,  305,  307,  308,  310, 

311,  312,  316,  318,  319,  322, 

326,  329,  330 
Santa  Isabel,  406 
Santa  Lucia,  370 
Santa  Maria  Isl.,  133 ;  Cape,  289 
Santa  Marta,  10,  12,  19,  21,  30,  31, 

32,  36,  41,  45 
Santa  Marta,  Nevada  de,  15,  21, 

40,  46 

Santander,  9,  10,  28,  46,  51 
Santander   del    Norte,   9,    10,   28, 

30,  36,  37,  38,  40,  41,  8l 
Santarem,  406 
Santa  Rosa,  144 
Santa  Rosa  de  Toay,  283 


506 


INDEX 


Santa  Teresa,  68 

Santiago,  246,  247,  248,  249,  251, 

254,  257,  264,  265,  272,  276; 

R.,  124,  126 

Santiago  de  Chuco,  198 
Santiago  del  Estero,  281,  283,  290, 

295,   308,   312,   314,   321,   325, 

331 

Santo  Amaro,  412 
Santo  Antonio,  383,  406 
Santos,  4,  374,  387,  388,  394,  408, 

414 

Sao  Borja,  411 
Sao  Felix,  412 
Sao  Francisco,  342,  393,  410;  R., 

377,    381,   386,   398,   399,   406, 

412,  429 

Sao  Lourencp  R.,  386 
Sao  Luis  de  Caceres,  407 
Sao  Luis  do  Maranhao,  401 
Sao  Paulo,  218,  254,  366,  375,  377, 

385,   388,   394,   395,   408,   409, 

410,   411,   414,   415,   416,   418, 

422,   424,   425,   426,   427,   429, 

430,  431,  432 
Sao  Salvador,  375,  398, 
Sao  Vicente,  374 
Sapodilla,  90,  106 
Sapotal  R.,  127 
Saramacca  R.,  109 
Sarmiento  Mt.,  251 
Sechura  Bay,  163 
Segovia  Highlands,  60,  65,  66 
Senilossa,  309 
Senna  Madureira,  405 
Serena,  See  La  Serena 
Sergipe,  375,  398,  412,  432 
Serpent's  Mouth,  69 
Serrapia,  Tree,  90 
Sete  Quedas  Falls,  333,  339,  385 
Sevilla  de  Oro,  119,  145 
Sheep,  92,  143,  193,  240,  260,  277, 

278,  317,  368,  426 


Sibate,  37 

Silla  de  Caracas,  60 

Silver,  195,  231 

Sincerin,  31 

Sinu  R.,  16,  22,  36;  V.,  44 

Siquisique,  81 

Sogamoso,  27,  38;  R.,  35,  44 

Solis,  Juan  de,  364 

Sorata,   215,   225,   236,   455;    Mt., 

212,  214 

Soriano,  356,  361 
Sorocabana,  409 
Soroche,  129,  161,  178,  180,  191 
Stock,  See  Live  Stock 
Sucre,  (Yen.),  54,  55,  68,  78,  79, 

82,  93,   94;    (Bol.),  206,  207, 

209,  217,  224,  225 
Sucre,  Gen.  Antonio  Jose  de,  68, 

150,  206 
Sugar,  41,  87,  105,  no,  142,  185, 

241,  321,  349,  416 
Sulphur,  94,  275 
Sumbay,  200 
Supe,  167,  187 
Surinam e,  109;  R.,  109,  no,  in 

Tabatinga,  406 

Tacna,  148,  151,  152,  247,  255,  266, 

274 

Tacora,  236,  275 
Tacuara  R.,  359 
Tacuarembo,  356,  363,  370 
Tachira,  55,  71,  81,  84,  93 
Tagua,  21,  43,  142,  143,  191,  418 
Taitao,  260 
Takutu  R.,  108 
Talara,  202 
Talca,  247,  258,  264 
Talcahuano,  261,  263,  264,  269,  274 
Taltal,  256,  266 
Tamalameque,  36,  37 
Tamaya,  273 
Tambo  R.,  170,  178,  183 


INDEX 


507 


Tannin,  89,  90,  277,  323,  345 

Tapajos  R.,  339,  383,  386,  402,  406 

Taquia,  200,  237 

Tarapaca,  151,  247,  255,  270 

Tarata,  266 

Tarija,  207,  209,  217,  223,  237 

Tarma,  178 

Tebicuary  R.,  339 

Temuco,  247,  269,  277 

Therezina,  375,  401 

Ticlio,  177,  196 

Tierra  del  Fuego,   251,  274,   283, 

290,  300,  318,  325 
Tiete  R.,  385 
Tigre,  299;  R.,  124,  125 
Tin,  232 

Tipuani  R.,  230,  231 
Tirapata,  183,  199 
Titicaca  Lake,  159,  172,  179,  180, 

181,   201,   208,   215,   221,   233, 

235,  238,  239,  243 
Tobacco,  42,  87,  142,  191,  241,  322, 

348,  416 
Tocantins   R.,  381,  382,  402,  406, 

412 

Toco,  266 

Tocopilla,  256,  266,  267,  272 
Tocujo  R.,  62,  65,  81 
Todos  os  Santos  Lake,  252 
Tofo,  273,  274 
Tola,  237 
Toledo,  366 

Tolima,  9,  10,  29,  33,  35,  37,  40,  50 
Tongoy,  273 
Tonka  Bean,  90,  107 
Toquilla,  146 
Tortoise,  134 
Totora,  225 

Treinta  y  Tres,  355,  356,  363,  366 
Trelew,  304,  311 
Tres  Barros,  420 
Trinidad,    (Bol),   207,   210,   218; 

(Urug.),  367 


Trinidad  Isl.,  69,  87,  93,  97,  106; 

Lake,  94,  95 
Trombetes  R.,  384 
Trujillo,  (Yen.),  55,  72,  81,  84,  85, 

93;  (Peru),  149,  152,  154,  164 
Tucacas,  65,  79,  81,  98 
Tucuman,  281,  283,  285,  294,  308, 

310,  312,  321,  322,  331 
Tucupita,  55,  76 
Tucurutu  Mts.,  108 
Tulcan,  117,  133,  145 
Tumaco,  26,  30,  31,  36,  38,  43 
Tumbes,   132,    139,    149,    152,    163, 

191,  198,  201 
Tumbes  R.,  122,  163 
Tumeremo,  74,  84 
Tumuc  Humac  Mts.,  109,  112 
Tungsten,  200,  325 
Tungurahua,  116,  117,  133,  159 
Tunja,  10,  27,  35 
Tupiza,  217,  223,  230 
Tupungato,  251 
Turiamo,  79,  92 
Tutoya,  401 
Tuy  R.,  63,  68,  80 

Ucayali  R.,  124,  125,  159,  160,  169, 

170,  173,  178,  182,  183,  192 
Unare  R.,  60 
Uncia,  224,  233,  234 
Unduavi,  224 

Uniao  da  Victoria,  342,  393 
United  Fruit  Co.,  21,  22 
Upata,  73 

Uraba  Gulf,  16,  23,  35,  41,  46 
Uribe,  Senor,  u;  President,  355 
Uraca,  72,  84 
Urcos,  183 

Urquiza,  General,  304 
Urubamba  R.,  170,  172,  183,  192 
Urubupunga  Falls,  385 
Urucum,  428 
Uruguay,   114,  289,  331,  334,  348, 


508 


INDEX 


349,    354-371,   4i6,    427,   431, 

452 
Uruguay   R.,   288,   289,   294,    306, 

307,   313,   331,   354,   359,   362, 

365,  37i,  385,  391,  4" 
Uruguayana,  392,  411 
Ushuaia,  283,  300,  304 
Uspallata  Pass,  267,  296 
Uyuni,  217,  223,  224,  268 

Valdivia,  (Col.),  345  (Chile),  246, 
247,  248,  259,  264,  277 

Valdivia,  Pedro  de,  246 

Valencia,  55,  67,  80,  83,  84,  90; 
Lake,  62,  67,  87 

Valera,  72 

Valle  de  Upar,  36 

Vallenar,  265 

Vanadium,  200 

Vanilla,  88 

Vaupes,  10,  26,  43;  R.,  17 

Vegetables,  190 

Venezuela,  15,  30,  37,  53-99,  IOI, 

423 

Venezuela,  Gulf  of,  64,  65,  78 
Ventuari  R.,  61,  76 
Verrugas  V.,  177 
Vespucci,  Amerigo,  373 
Viacha,  210,  223 
Victoria,  375,  397,  411,  430 
Vicunas,  193,  239 
Vichada,  10,  27;  R.,  17,  27,  75,  91 
Viedma,  283,  304 
Vilcamayu  R.,  159 
Vilcanota,  159,  211 
Villa  Bella,  210,  219,  227,  243,  413 
Villa  Church,  225,  227,  413 
Villa  Concepcion,  342 
Villa  de  Cura,  67,  83 
Villa  Encarnaci6n,  342 
Villa  Hayes,  342,  349 
Villamizar,  30,  31,  85 
Villa  Monies,  207,  220 


Villa  Murtinho,  219,  227,  413 

Villavicencio,  10 

Villeta,  335 

Vinces  R.,  127 

Vina  del  Mar,  263 

Viscacha,  193,  239 

Visser,  304 

Viticulture,  189,  241,  276,  322,  370 

Vitor,  180 

Vreeden  Hook,  104 

Waini  R.,  108 

Water  power,  52,  83,  98,  101,  124, 

202,   225,   279,   331,   371,   385, 

394,  405,  426,  433 
West  Coast,  114-279 
Wheat,  43,  88,  276,  320,  418 
Wheelwright,  William,  264,  307 
Wismar,  104 
Wool,  193,  239,  278,  317,  369 

Xarquedas,  431 
Xingii  R.,  383,  402 

Yacuiba,  210,  220,  223,  243,  312 

Yaguachi  R.,  127 

Yaguaron  R.,  359 

Yapura  R.,  17,  406 

Yaracuy,  54,  55,  66,  77,  81,  93 

Yareta,  237 

Yaritagua,  66 

Yauli,  197,  200 

Yauricocha,  197,  198 

Yerba  Mate,  324,  347,  393,  422 

Yhu,  335 

Ypoa  Lake,  338,  340 

Yucca,  142 

Yungas,   213,   215,   224,   226,    234, 

242,  243 
Yungay,  166 
Yurimaguas,  173 
Yuruan,  108 
Yuruary  R.,  89,  92,  93 


INDEX 


509 


Zamora,  (Yen.),  55,  71,  88; 

145 

Zaragosa,  49 
Zarate,  289,  301,  312,  318 
Zaruma,  132,  145 
Zarzal,  37 
Zavala,  General,  354 


(Ec.), 


Zinc,  45,  200,  236,  274 

Zipiquira,  37,  45 

Zorritos,  144,  201 

Zulia,  54,  55,  64;  Lake,  62;  R.,  16, 

28,  30,  31,  36,  64,  86 
Zumba,  139 


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